[II-II.q.40.a.1.arg.1] It would seem that it is always sinful to wage war. Because punishment is not inflicted except for sin. Now those who wage war are threatened by Our Lord with punishment, according to Matthew 26:52: \"All that take the sword shall perish with the sword.\" Therefore all wars are unlawful.
\n[II-II.q.40.a.1.arg.1] Ad primum sic proceditur. 1. Videtur quod Christus non debuerit inter homines conversari, sed solitariam vitam agere. Oportebat enim quod Christus sua conversatione non solum se hominem ostenderet esse, sed etiam Deum. Sed Deum non convenit cum hominibus conversari: dicitur enim Danielis, II, 44: Exceptis diis, quorum non est cum hominibus conversatio; et Philosophus dicit in I Politicæ, cap. II, a med., quod « ille qui solitarius vivit, aut est bestia, » si scilicet propter sævitiam hoc faciat, « aut est Deus, » si hoc faciat propter contemplandam veritatem. Ergo videtur quod non fuerit conveniens Christum inter homines conversari.
\n[II-II.q.40.a.1.arg.2] Further, whatever is contrary to a Divine precept is a sin. But war is contrary to a Divine precept, for it is written (Matthew 5:39): \"But I say to you not to resist evil\"; and (Romans 12:19): \"Not revenging yourselves, my dearly beloved, but give place unto wrath.\" Therefore war is always sinful.
\n[II-II.q.40.a.1.arg.2] 2. Præterea, Christus, dum in carne mortali vixit, debuit perfectissimam vitam ducere. Perfectissima autem vita est contemplativa, ut in secunda parte habitum est. Ad vitam autem contemplativam maxime competit solitudo, secundum illud, Oseæ II, 44: Ducam eam in solitudinem, et loquar ad cor ejus. Ergo videtur quod Christus debuerit solitariam vitam ducere.
\n[II-II.q.40.a.1.arg.3] Further, nothing, except sin, is contrary to an act of virtue.
\nBut war is contrary to peace. Therefore war is always a sin.
\n[II-II.q.40.a.1.arg.3] 3. Præterea, conversatio Christi debuit esse uniformis, quia semper in eo debuit apparere id quod optimum est. Sed quandoque Christus solitaria loca quærebat, turbas declinans; unde Remigius dicit Super Matth. 5: « Tria refugia legitur Dominus habuisse, navim, montem, et desertum; ad quorum alterum, quoties-cumque a turbis comprimebatur, conscendebat. » Ergo et semper debuit solitariam vitam agere.
\n[II-II.q.40.a.1.arg.4] Further, the exercise of a lawful thing is itself lawful, as is evident in scientific exercises. But warlike exercises which take place in tournaments are forbidden by the Church, since those who are slain in these trials are deprived of ecclesiastical burial. Therefore it seems that war is a sin in itself.
\n[II-II.q.40.a.1.arg.4] 4. Præterea, omne exercitium ad rem licitum licitum est, sicut patet in exercitiis scientiarum. Sed exercitia bellorum, quæ fiunt in torneamentis, prohibentur ab Ecclesia; quia morientes in hujusmodi tyrociniis ecclesiastica sepultura privantur. Ergo bellum videtur esse simpliciter peccatum.
\n[II-II.q.40.a.1.sc] Augustine says in a sermon on the son of the centurion [Ep. ad Marcel. cxxxviii]: \"If the Christian Religion forbade war altogether, those who sought salutary advice in the Gospel would rather have been counselled to cast aside their arms, and to give up soldiering altogether. On the contrary, they were told: 'Do violence to no man . . . and be content with your pay' [Luke 3:14. If he commanded them to be content with their pay, he did not forbid soldiering.\"
\n[II-II.q.40.a.1.sc] Sed contra est quod dicitur Baruch, III, 38: Post hæc in terris visus est, et cum hominibus conversatus est.
\n[II-II.q.40.a.1.co] In order for a war to be just, three things are necessary. First, the authority of the sovereign by whose command the war is to be waged. For it is not the business of a private individual to declare war, because he can seek for redress of his rights from the tribunal of his superior. Moreover it is not the business of a private individual to summon together the people, which has to be done in wartime. And as the care of the common weal is committed to those who are in authority, it is their business to watch over the common weal of the city, kingdom or province subject to them. And just as it is lawful for them to have recourse to the sword in defending that common weal against internal disturbances, when they punish evil-doers, according to the words of the Apostle (Romans 13:4): \"He beareth not the sword in vain: for he is God's minister, an avenger to execute wrath upon him that doth evil\"; so too, it is their business to have recourse to the sword of war in defending the common weal against external enemies. Hence it is said to those who are in authority (Psalm 81:4): \"Rescue the poor: and deliver the needy out of the hand of the sinner\"; and for this reason Augustine says (Contra Faust. xxii, 75): \"The natural order conducive to peace among mortals demands that the power to declare and counsel war should be in the hands of those who hold the supreme authority.\"
\nSecondly, a just cause is required, namely that those who are attacked, should be attacked because they deserve it on account of some fault. Wherefore Augustine says (QQ. in Hept., qu. x, super Jos.): \"A just war is wont to be described as one that avenges wrongs, when a nation or state has to be punished, for refusing to make amends for the wrongs inflicted by its subjects, or to restore what it has seized unjustly.\"
\nThirdly, it is necessary that the belligerents should have a rightful intention, so that they intend the advancement of good, or the avoidance of evil. Hence Augustine says (De Verb. Dom. [The words quoted are to be found not in St. Augustine's works, but Can. Apud. Caus. xxiii, qu. 1): \"True religion looks upon as peaceful those wars that are waged not for motives of aggrandizement, or cruelty, but with the object of securing peace, of punishing evil-doers, and of uplifting the good.\" For it may happen that the war is declared by the legitimate authority, and for a just cause, and yet be rendered unlawful through a wicked intention. Hence Augustine says (Contra Faust. xxii, 74): \"The passion for inflicting harm, the cruel thirst for vengeance, an unpacific and relentless spirit, the fever of revolt, the lust of power, and such like things, all these are rightly condemned in war.\"
\n[II-II.q.40.a.1.co] Respondeo dicendum, quod conversatio Christi talis debuit esse ut conveniret fini Incarnationis, secundum quem venit in mundum. Venit autem in mundum primo quidem ad manifestandum veritatem, sicut ipse dicit Joan., XVIII, 37: In hoc natus sum, et ad hoc veni in mundum ut testimonium perhibeam veritati. Et ideo non debebat se occultare, vitam solitariam agens, sed in publicum procedere, publice prædicando. Unde Lucæ, IV, 43, dixit illis qui volebant eum detinere: Quia et aliis civitatibus oportet me evangelizare regnum Dei, quia ideo missus sum. Secundo, venit ad hoc ut homines a peccato liberaret, secundum illud I ad Timoth., I, 15: Christus Jesus venit in hunc mundum peccatores salvos facere. Et ideo ut Chrysostomus dicit, eumdem locum. Habetur in Catena aurea D. Thomæ. licet « in eodem loco manendo posset Christus ad se omnes attrahere, ut ejus prædicationem audirent; non tamen hoc fecit, præbens nobis exemplum, ut perambulemus, et requiramus pereuntem, sicut pastor ovem perditam, et medicus accedit ad infirmum. » Tertio, venit ut per ipsum habeamus accessum ad Deum, ut dicitur Rom., v. Et ideo familiariter cum hominibus conversando, conveniens fuit ut hominibus fiduciam daret ad se accedendi. Unde dicitur Matth., ix, 10: Factum est, discumbente eo in domo, ecce multi publicani et peccatores venientes discumbebant cum Jesu et discipulis ejus; quod exponens Hieronymus dicit, col. 56, t. 7: « Peccatores videbant publicanum a peccatis ad meliora conversum, locum invenisse pœnitentiæ, et ob id etiam ipsi non desperant salutem. »
\n[II-II.q.40.a.1.ad.1] As Augustine says (Contra Faust. xxii, 70): \"To take the sword is to arm oneself in order to take the life of anyone, without the command or permission of superior or lawful authority.\" On the other hand, to have recourse to the sword (as a private person) by the authority of the sovereign or judge, or (as a public person) through zeal for justice, and by the authority, so to speak, of God, is not to \"take the sword,\" but to use it as commissioned by another, wherefore it does not deserve punishment. And yet even those who make sinful use of the sword are not always slain with the sword, yet they always perish with their own sword, because, unless they repent, they are punished eternally for their sinful use of the sword.
\n[II-II.q.40.a.1.ad.1] Ad primum ergo dicendum, quod Christus per humanitatem suam voluit manifestare divinitatem: et ideo conversando cum hominibus, quod est proprium homini, manifestavit omnibus suam divinitatem prædicando, et miracula faciendo, et innocenter et juste inter homines conversando.
\n[II-II.q.40.a.1.ad.2] Such like precepts, as Augustine observes (De Serm. Dom. in Monte i, 19), should always be borne in readiness of mind, so that we be ready to obey them, and, if necessary, to refrain from resistance or self-defense. Nevertheless it is necessary sometimes for a man to act otherwise for the common good, or for the good of those with whom he is fighting. Hence Augustine says (Ep. ad Marcellin. cxxxviii): \"Those whom we have to punish with a kindly severity, it is necessary to handle in many ways against their will. For when we are stripping a man of the lawlessness of sin, it is good for him to be vanquished, since nothing is more hopeless than the happiness of sinners, whence arises a guilty impunity, and an evil will, like an internal enemy.\"
\n[II-II.q.40.a.1.ad.2] Ad secundum dicendum, quod, sicut in secunda parte dictum est, vita contemplativa simpliciter est melior quam activa, quæ occupatur circa corporales actus; sed vita activa, secundum quam aliquis prædicando, et docendo contemplata aliis tradit, est perfectior quam vita quæ solum est contemplativa: quia talis vita præsupponit abundantiam contemplationis. Et ideo Christus talem vitam elegit.
\n[II-II.q.40.a.1.ad.3] Those who wage war justly aim at peace, and so they are not opposed to peace, except to the evil peace, which Our Lord \"came not to send upon earth\" (Matthew 10:34). Hence Augustine says (Ep. ad Bonif. clxxxix): \"We do not seek peace in order to be at war, but we go to war that we may have peace. Be peaceful, therefore, in warring, so that you may vanquish those whom you war against, and bring them to the prosperity of peace.\"
\n[II-II.q.40.a.1.ad.3] Ad tertium dicendum, quod actio Christi fuit nostra instructio. Et ideo ut daret exemplum prædicatoribus, quod non semper se darent in publicum, quando Dominus se a turbis retraxit. Quod quidem legitur fecisse propter tria: quandoque quidem propter corporalem quietem: unde Marci, vi, 31, dicitur quod Dominus dixit discipulis: Venite seorsum in desertum locum, et requiescite pusillum: erant enim qui veniebant et redibant multi, et nec spatium manducandi habebant. Quandoque vero causa orationis. Unde dicitur Lucæ, vi, 12: Factum est in illis diebus, exiit in montem orare, et erat pernoctans in oratione Dei: ubi ait Ambrosius, col. 1732, t. 2, quod « ad præcepta virtutis suo nos informat exemplo. » Quandoque vero ut doceret favorem humanum vitare. Unde Super illud Matth., v, Videns Jesus turbas ascendit in montem, dicit Chrysostomus, Hom. xv in Matth., § 1, col. 479, t. 14: « Per hoc quod non in civitate et foro, sed in monte, et solitudine sedit, erudivit nos nihil ad ostentationem facere, et a tumultibus abscedere, et maxime cum de necessariis disputare oportet. »
\n[II-II.q.40.a.1.ad.4] Manly exercises in warlike feats of arms are not all forbidden, but those which are inordinate and perilous, and end in slaying or plundering. On olden times warlike exercises presented no such danger, and hence they were called \"exercises of arms\" or \"bloodless wars,\" as Jerome states in an epistle [Reference incorrect: cf. Veget., De Re Milit. i].
\n[II-II.q.40.a.1.ad.4] Ad quartum dicendum, quod exercitia hominum ad res bellicas spectantia non sunt universaliter prohibita; sed inordinata exercitia, et periculosa, ex quibus occasiones et deprædationes proveniunt. Apud antiquos autem exercitationes ad bella sine hujusmodi periculis erant, et ideo vocabantur « meditationes armorum, » vel « bella sine sanguine, » ut per Hieronymum patet in quadam epist..
\n[II-II.q.40.a.2.arg.1] It would seem lawful for clerics and bishops to fight. For, as stated above (Article 1), wars are lawful and just in so far as they protect the poor and the entire common weal from suffering at the hands of the foe. Now this seems to be above all the duty of prelates, for Gregory says (Hom. in Ev. xiv): \"The wolf comes upon the sheep, when any unjust and rapacious man oppresses those who are faithful and humble. But he who was thought to be the shepherd, and was not, leaveth the sheep, end flieth, for he fears lest the wolf hurt him, and dares not stand up against his injustice.\" Therefore it is lawful for prelates and clerics to fight.
\n[II-II.q.40.a.2.arg.1] Ad secundum sic proceditur. 1. Videtur quod Christus debuerit austeram vitam ducere in hoc mundo: Christus enim multo magis prædicavit perfectionem vitæ quam Joannes. Sed Joannes austeram vitam duxit, ut suo exemplo homines ad perfectionem vitæ provocaret: dicitur enim Matth., iii, 4, quod ipse Joannes habebat vestimentum de pilis camelorum et zonam pelliceam circa lumbos suos; esca autem ejus erant locustæ et mel sylvestre; quod exponens Chrysostomus, Hom. x in Matth., § 4, col. 420, t. 11, dicit: « Erat mirabile in humano corpore tantam patientiam videre; quod et Judæos magis attrahebat. » Ergo videtur quod multo magis Christum decuerit austeritas vitæ.
\n[II-II.q.40.a.2.arg.2] Further, Pope Leo IV writes (xxiii, qu. 8, can. Igitur): \"As untoward tidings had frequently come from the Saracen side, some said that the Saracens would come to the port of Rome secretly and covertly; for which reason we commanded our people to gather together, and ordered them to go down to the seashore.\" Therefore it is lawful for bishops to fight.
\n[II-II.q.40.a.2.arg.2] 2. Præterea, abstinentia ad continentiam ordinatur; dicitur enim Oseæ, iv, 10: Comedent et non saturabuntur: fornicati sunt, et non cessaverunt. Sed Christus continentiam et in se servavit, et aliis servandam proposuit, cum dixit Matth., xix, 12: Sunt eunuchi qui se ipsos castraverunt propter regnum cælorum: qui potest capere capiat. Ergo videtur quod Christus in se et in suis discipulis austeritatem vitæ servare debuerit.
\n[II-II.q.40.a.2.arg.3] Further, apparently, it comes to the same whether a man does a thing himself, or consents to its being done by another, according to Romans 1:32: \"They who do such things, are worthy of death, and not only they that do them, but they also that consent to them that do them.\" Now those, above all, seem to consent to a thing, who induce others to do it.
\nBut it is lawful for bishops and clerics to induce others to fight: for it is written (xxiii, qu. 8, can. Hortatu) that Charles went to war with the Lombards at the instance and entreaty of Adrian, bishop of Rome. Therefore they also are allowed to fight.
\n[II-II.q.40.a.2.arg.3] 3. Præterea, ridiculum videtur ut aliquis districtiorem vitam incipiat, et ab ea in laxiorem revertatur; potest enim dici contra eum quod habetur Luc., xiv, 30: Hic homo cæpit ædificare, et non potuit consummare. Christus autem districtissimam vitam incæpit post baptismum, manens in deserto, et jejunans quadraginta diebus et quadraginta noctibus. Ergo videtur non fuisse congruum quod post tantam vitæ districtionem ad communem vitam rediret.
\n[II-II.q.40.a.2.arg.4] Further, whatever is right and meritorious in itself, is lawful for prelates and clerics. Now it is sometimes right and meritorious to make war, for it is written (xxiii, qu. 8, can. Omni timore) that if \"a man die for the true faith, or to save his country, or in defense of Christians, God will give him a heavenly reward.\" Therefore it is lawful for bishops and clerics to fight.
\n[II-II.q.40.a.2.arg.4] 4. Præterea, illud quod est secundum se honestum et meritorium, non est illicitum prælatis et clericis. Sed bellare est quando et honestum et meritorium; dicitur enim XXIII, quæst. vIII, c. «Omni timore, » col. 1248, quod «si aliquis pro veritate fidei et salvatione patriæ, ac defensione christianorum mortuus fuerit, a Deo cæleste præmium consequetur. » Ergo licitum est episcopis et clericis bellare.
\n[II-II.q.40.a.2.sc] It was said to Peter as representing bishops and clerics (Matthew 16:52): \"Put up again thy sword into the scabbard [Vulgate: 'its place'] [\"Scabbard\" is the reading in John 18:11.\"] Therefore it is not lawful for them to fight.
\n[II-II.q.40.a.2.sc] Sed contra est quod dicitur Matth., xi, 19: Venit Filius hominis manducans et bibens.
\n[II-II.q.40.a.2.co] Several things are requisite for the good of a human society: and a number of things are done better and quicker by a number of persons than by one, as the Philosopher observes (Polit. i, 1), while certain occupations are so inconsistent with one another, that they cannot be fittingly exercised at the same time; wherefore those who are deputed to important duties are forbidden to occupy themselves with things of small importance. Thus according to human laws, soldiers who are deputed to warlike pursuits are forbidden to engage in commerce [Cod. xii, 35, De Re Milit.].
\nNow warlike pursuits are altogether incompatible with the duties of a bishop and a cleric, for two reasons. The first reason is a general one, because, to wit, warlike pursuits are full of unrest, so that they hinder the mind very much from the contemplation of Divine things, the praise of God, and prayers for the people, which belong to the duties of a cleric. Wherefore just as commercial enterprises are forbidden to clerics, because they unsettle the mind too much, so too are warlike pursuits, according to 2 Timothy 2:4: \"No man being a soldier to God, entangleth himself with secular business.\" The second reason is a special one, because, to wit, all the clerical Orders are directed to the ministry of the altar, on which the Passion of Christ is represented sacramentally, according to 1 Corinthians 11:26: \"As often as you shall eat this bread, and drink the chalice, you shall show the death of the Lord, until He come.\" Wherefore it is unbecoming for them to slay or shed blood, and it is more fitting that they should be ready to shed their own blood for Christ, so as to imitate in deed what they portray in their ministry. For this reason it has been decreed that those who shed blood, even without sin, become irregular. Now no man who has a certain duty to perform, can lawfully do that which renders him unfit for that duty. Wherefore it is altogether unlawful for clerics to fight, because war is directed to the shedding of blood.
\n[II-II.q.40.a.2.co] Respondeo dicendum, quod, sicut dictum est, congruum erat incarnationis fini, ut Christus non ageret solitariam vitam, sed cum hominibus conversaretur. Qui autem cum aliquibus conversatur, convenientissimum est ut se eis in conversationem conformet, secundum illud Apostoli I ad Cor., 1x, 22: Omnibus omnia factus sum. Et ideo convenientissimum fuit ut Christus in cibo et potu communiter se, sicut alii, haberet. Unde Augustinus dicit Contra Faustum, lib. XVI, cap. xxxi, col. 337, t. 8, quod « Joannes dictus est non manducans neque bibens, quia illo victu quo Judæi utebantur, non utebatur. Hoc ergo nisi Dominus uteretur, non in ejus comparatione manducans bibensque dicere tur. »
\n[II-II.q.40.a.2.ad.1] Prelates ought to withstand not only the wolf who brings spiritual death upon the flock, but also the pillager and the oppressor who work bodily harm; not, however, by having recourse themselves to material arms, but by means of spiritual weapons, according to the saying of the Apostle (2 Corinthians 10:4): \"The weapons of our warfare are not carnal, but mighty through God.\" Such are salutary warnings, devout prayers, and, for those who are obstinate, the sentence of excommunication.
\n[II-II.q.40.a.2.ad.1] Ad primum ergo dicendum, quod Dominus in sua conversatione exemplum perfectionis dedit in omnibus quæ per se pertinent ad salutem. Ipsa autem abstinentia cibi et potus non per se pertinet ad salutem, secundum illud Rom., xiv, 17: Non est regnum Dei esca et potus; et Augustinus dicit in lib. II De quæst. evangel., quæst. xi, col. 1337, t. 3, exponens illud Matth., xi: Justificata est sapientia a filiis suis, quia scilicet « sancti Apostoli intellexerunt regnum Dei non esse in esca et potu, sed in æquanimitate tolerandi, quos nec copia sublevat, nec deprimit egestas. » Et in III De doctrina Christi, cap. xii, col. 73, t. 3, dicit quod « in omnibus talibus non usus rerum, sed libido utentis in culpa est. » Utraque autem vita est licita et laudabilis, ut scilicet aliquis a communi consortio hominum segregatus abstinentiam servet, et ut in societate aliorum positus communi vita utatur. Et ideo Dominus voluit utriusque vitæ exemplum dare hominibus. Joannes autem, sicut Chrysostomus dicit Super Matth., hom. xxxviii, « nihil plus ostendit præter vitam et justitiam; Chrisus autem et a miraculis testimonium habebat. Dimittens ergo Joannem jejunio fulgere, ipse contraria incessit via, ad mensam intrans publicanorum, et manducans, et bibens. »
\n[II-II.q.40.a.2.ad.2] Prelates and clerics may, by the authority of their superiors, take part in wars, not indeed by taking up arms themselves, but by affording spiritual help to those who fight justly, by exhorting and absolving them, and by other like spiritual helps. Thus in the Old Testament (Joshua 6:4) the priests were commanded to sound the sacred trumpets in the battle. It was for this purpose that bishops or clerics were first allowed to go to the front: and it is an abuse of this permission, if any of them take up arms themselves.
\n[II-II.q.40.a.2.ad.2] Ad secundum dicendum, quod, sicut alii homines per abstinentiam consequuntur virtutem continendi, ita etiam Christus in se et in suis per virtutem suæ divinitatis carnem comprimebat. Unde, sicut Matth., 1x, dicitur, Pharisæi et discipuli Joannis jejunabant, non autem discipuli Christi. Quod exponens Beda In II Marc., v. 18, col. 154, t. 3, dicit quod « Joannes vinum et siceram non bibit, quia illi abstinentia meritum auget cui potentia nulla inerat naturæ. Dominus autem, cui naturaliter suppetebat delicta donare, cur eos declinaret quos abstinentibus poterat reddere puriores? »
\n[II-II.q.40.a.2.ad.3] As stated above (23, 4, ad 2) every power, art or virtue that regards the end, has to dispose that which is directed to the end. Now, among the faithful, carnal wars should be considered as having for their end the Divine spiritual good to which clerics are deputed. Wherefore it is the duty of clerics to dispose and counsel other men to engage in just wars. For they are forbidden to take up arms, not as though it were a sin, but because such an occupation is unbecoming their personality.
\n[II-II.q.40.a.2.ad.3] Ad tertium dicendum, quod, sicut Chrysostomus dicit Super Matth., hom. xiii, § 1 et 2, col. 456, t. 112 « ut discas quam magnum bonum est jejunium, et quale scutum est adversus diabolum, et quoniam post baptismum non lasciviæ, sed jejunio intendere oportet, et ipse jejunavit, non eo indigens, sed nos instruens; non autem ultra processit jejunando quam Moyses et Elias, ne incredibilis videretur carnis assumptio. » Secundum mysterium autem, ut Gregorius dicit Hom.xvi in Evang., § 5, col. 1437, t. 2, « quadragenarius numerus exemplo Christi in jejunio custoditur, quia virtus Decalogi per libros quatuor S. Evangelii impletur; denarius enim quater ductus in quadragenarium surgit. Vel quia in hoc mortali corpore ex quatuor elementis subsistimus, per cujus voluptates præceptis Dominicis contrahimus, quæ per Decalogum sunt accepta. » Vel secundum Augustinum in lib. LXXXIII QQ., qu. Lxxxi, col. 96, t. 6, « omnis sapientia disciplina est, Creatorem creaturamque dignoscere. Creator est Trinitas, et Pater, et Filius, et Spiritus sanctus. Creatura vero partim est invisibilis, sicut anima, cui ternarius numerus attribuitur: diligere enim Deum tripliciter jubemur; ex toto corde, et ex tota anima, et ex tota mente; partim visibilis, sicut corpus, cui quaternarius debetur, propter calidum, humidum, frigidum et siccum. Denarius ergo numerus, qui totam insinuat disciplinam, quater ductus, id est, numero, qui corpori tribuitur, multiplicatus, quadragenarium numerum conficit: et ideo tempus quo ingemiscimus et dolemus, quadragenario numero celebratur. » Nec tamen incongruum fuit ut Christus post jejunium et desertum ad communem vitam rediret. Hoc enim convenit vitæ, secundum quam aliquis contemplata aliis tradit, quam Christus dicimus assumpsisse, ut primo contemplationi vacet, et postea ad publicum actionis descendat, aliis convivendo. Unde et Beda dicit Sup. 11 Marci ut supra: « Jejunavit Christus, ne præceptum declinares: manducavit cum peccatoribus, ut gratiam cerneres, agnosceres potestatem. »
\n[II-II.q.40.a.2.ad.4] Although it is meritorious to wage a just war, nevertheless it is rendered unlawful for clerics, by reason of their being deputed to works more meritorious still. Thus the marriage act may be meritorious; and yet it becomes reprehensible in those who have vowed virginity, because they are bound to a yet greater good.
\n[II-II.q.40.a.2.ad.4] Ad quartum dicendum, quod licet exercere bella justa sit meritorium, tamen illicitum redditur clericis, propter hoc quod sunt ad opera magis meritoria deputati; sicut matrimonialis actus potest esse meritorius, et tamen virginitatem voventibus damnabiliis redditur propter obligationem eorum ad majus bonum.
\n[II-II.q.40.a.3.arg.1] It would seem that it is unlawful to lay ambushes in war. For it is written (Deuteronomy 16:20): \"Thou shalt follow justly after that which is just.\" But ambushes, since they are a kind of deception, seem to pertain to injustice. Therefore it is unlawful to lay ambushes even in a just war.
\n[II-II.q.40.a.3.arg.1] Ad tertium sic proceditur. 1. Videtur quod Christus in hoc mundo non debuerit pauperem vitam ducere. Christus enim debuit eligibilissimam vitam assumere. Sed eligibilissima vita est, quæ est mediocris inter divitias et paupertatem: dicitur enim Prov., xxx, 8: Mendicitatem et divitias ne dederis mihi; tribue tantum victui meo necessaria. Ergo Christus non debuit pauperem vitam ducere, sed moderatam.
\n[II-II.q.40.a.3.arg.2] Further, ambushes and deception seem to be opposed to faithfulness even as lies are. But since we are bound to keep faith with all men, it is wrong to lie to anyone, as Augustine states (Contra Mend. xv). Therefore, as one is bound to keep faith with one's enemy, as Augustine states (Ep. ad Bonif. clxxxix), it seems that it is unlawful to lay ambushes for one's enemies.
\n[II-II.q.40.a.3.arg.2] 2. Præterea, exteriores divitiæ ad usum corporis ordinantur quantum ad victum et vestitum. Sed Christus in victu et vestitu communem vitam duxit secundum modum aliorum quibus convivebat. Ergo videtur quod in divitiis et paupertate communem modum vivendi servare debuerit, et non uti maxima paupertate.
\n[II-II.q.40.a.3.arg.3] Further, it is written (Matthew 7:12): \"Whatsoever you would that men should do to you, do you also to them\": and we ought to observe this in all our dealings with our neighbor. Now our enemy is our neighbor. Therefore, since no man wishes ambushes or deceptions to be prepared for himself, it seems that no one ought to carry on war by laying ambushes.
\n[II-II.q.40.a.3.arg.3] 3. Præterea, Christus maxime homines invitavit ad exemplum humilitatis, secundum illud Matth., xi, 29: Discite a me, quia mitis sum et humilis corde. Sed humilitas maxime commendatur in divitibus: unde dicitur I ad Timoth., ult., 47: Divitibus hujus sæculi præcipe, non altum* sapere. Ergo videtur quod Christus non debuerit ducere pauperem vitam. 2 Ille sermo a Theodoto episc. Ancyrano die Nativitatis Domini in Ephesina Synodo habitus
\n[II-II.q.40.a.3.sc] Augustine says (QQ. in Hept. qu. x super Jos): \"Provided the war be just, it is no concern of justice whether it be carried on openly or by ambushes\": and he proves this by the authority of the Lord, Who commanded Joshua to lay ambushes for the city of Hai (Joshua 8:2).
\n[II-II.q.40.a.3.sc] Sed contra est quod dicitur Matth., viii, 20, Filius hominis non habet ubi caput reclinet: quasi dicat, secundum Hieronymum, col. 53, t. 7: « Cur me propter divitias et sæculi lucra cupis sequi, cum tantæ sim paupertatis, ut ne hospitiolum quidem habeam, et non meo utar tecto? » Et super illud Matth., xvii: Ut non scandalizemus eos vade ad mare, dicit Hieronymus, col. 427, t. 7: « Hoc simpliciter intellectum ædificat auditorem, dum tanta Dominus fuerit paupertatis, ut unde tributa pro se et Apostolo redderet, non habuerit. »
\n[II-II.q.40.a.3.co] The object of laying ambushes is in order to deceive the enemy. Now a man may be deceived by another's word or deed in two ways. First, through being told something false, or through the breaking of a promise, and this is always unlawful. No one ought to deceive the enemy in this way, for there are certain \"rights of war and covenants, which ought to be observed even among enemies,\" as Ambrose states (De Officiis i).
\nSecondly, a man may be deceived by what we say or do, because we do not declare our purpose or meaning to him. Now we are not always bound to do this, since even in the Sacred Doctrine many things have to be concealed, especially from unbelievers, lest they deride it, according to Matthew 7:6: \"Give not that which is holy, to dogs.\" Wherefore much more ought the plan of campaign to be hidden from the enemy. For this reason among other things that a soldier has to learn is the art of concealing his purpose lest it come to the enemy's knowledge, as stated in the Book on Strategy [Stratagematum i, 1 by Frontinus. Such like concealment is what is meant by an ambush which may be lawfully employed in a just war.
\nNor can these ambushes be properly called deceptions, nor are they contrary to justice or to a well-ordered will. For a man would have an inordinate will if he were unwilling that others should hide anything from him
\nThis suffices for the Replies to the Objections.
\n[II-II.q.40.a.3.co] Respondeo dicendum, quod Christum decuit in hoc mundo pauperem vitam ducere. Primo quidem, quia hoc erat congruum prædicationis officio, propter quod venisse se dicit Marci, i, 38: Eamus in proximos vicos et civitates, ut et ibi prædicem; ad hoc enim veni. Oportet autem prædicatores verbi Dei, ut omnino vacent prædicationi, omnino a sæcularium rerum cura esse absolutos: quod facere non possunt qui divitias possident. Unde et ipse Dominus Apostolos ad prædicandum mittens, dicit eis Matth., x, 9: Nolite possidere aurum, neque argentum: et ipsi Apostoli dicunt Act., vi, 2: Non est æquum nos derelinquere verbum Dei et ministrare mensis. Secundo, quia sicut mortem corporalem assumpsit, ut nobis vitam largiretur spiritualem; ita corporalem paupertatem sustinuit, ut nobis divitias spirituales largiretur, secundum illud II ad Corinth., viii, 9: Scitis gratiam Domini nostri Jesu Christi, quoniam propter vos egemus factus est, ut illius inopia vos divites essetis. Tertio, ne si divitias haberet, ejus cupidati prædicatio adscriberetur. Unde Hieronymus dicit Super X Matth., v.9, col. 62, t. 7, quod « si discipuli ejus divitias habuissent, viderentur non causa salutis hominum, sed causa lucri prædicare; » et eadem ratio est de Christo. Quarto, ut tanto major virtus Divinitatis ejus ostenderetur, quanto per paupertatem videbatur abjectior. Unde dicitur in quodam Sermone Ephesini concilii, col. 4359 oper. Theodot. Ancyr.: « Omnia paupera et vilia elegit, omnia mediocria, et plurimis obscura, ut Divinitas cognoscereur orbem transformasse terrarum; propterea, pauperculam elegit matrem, pau-est, ut videre est col. 4359, tom. 77 Patrum Græcorum apud Migne et in actis concilii p. III, cap. ix. periorem patriam, egens fuit pecuniis; et hoc tibi exponit præsepe. »
\n[II-II.q.40.a.4.arg.1] It would seem unlawful to fight on holy days. For holy days are instituted that we may give our time to the things of God. Hence they are included in the keeping of the Sabbath prescribed Exodus 20:8: for \"sabbath\" is interpreted \"rest.\" But wars are full of unrest. Therefore by no means is it lawful to fight on holy days.
\n[II-II.q.40.a.4.arg.1] Ad quartum sic proceditur. 1. Videtur quod Christus non fuerit conversatus secundum legem. Lex enim præcipiebat ut nihil operis in sabbato fieret, sicut Deus requievit die septimo ab omni opere quod patrarat, Genes., II, 2. Sed ipse in sabbato curavit hominem, et ei mandavit ut tolleret lectum suum. Ergo videtur quod non fuerit secundum legem conversatus.
\n[II-II.q.40.a.4.arg.2] Further, certain persons are reproached (Isaiah 58:3) because on fast-days they exacted what was owing to them, were guilty of strife, and of smiting with the fist. Much more, therefore, is it unlawful to fight on holy days.
\n[II-II.q.40.a.4.arg.2] 2. Præterea, Isa., lviii, reprehenduntur quidam quod in diebus jejunii repetunt debita, et committunt lites, pugno percu-tientes. Ergo multo magis in diebus festis illicitum est bellare.
\n[II-II.q.40.a.4.arg.3] Further, no ill deed should be done to avoid temporal harm. But fighting on a holy day seems in itself to be an ill deed. Therefore no one should fight on a holy day even through the need of avoiding temporal harm.
\n[II-II.q.40.a.4.arg.3] 3. Præterea, idem judicium videtur esse facientis et consentientis, secundum illud Rom., I, 32: Non solum qui facient sed qui consentient facientibus. Sed Christus consentit discipulis suis solventibus legem in hoc quod sabbato spicas vellebant, excusando eos, ut habetur Matth., xii. Ergo videtur quod Christus non conversatus fuerit secundum legem.
\n[II-II.q.40.a.4.sc] It is written (1 Maccabees 2:41): The Jews rightly determined . . . saying: \"Whosoever shall come up against us to fight on the Sabbath-day, we will fight against him.\"
\n[II-II.q.40.a.4.sc] Sed contra est quod dicitur Matth., v, 17: Nolite putare quoniam veni solvere legem aut prophetas: quod exponens Chrysostomus, Hom. xvi in Matth., § 2, col. 541, t. 41, dicit: « Legem implevit; primo quidem nihil transgrediendo legalium, secundo justificando per fidem quod lex per litteram facere non valebat. »
\n[II-II.q.40.a.4.co] The observance of holy days is no hindrance to those things which are ordained to man's safety, even that of his body. Hence Our Lord argued with the Jews, saying (John 7:23): \"Are you angry at Me because I have healed the whole man on the Sabbath-day?\" Hence physicians may lawfully attend to their patients on holy days. Now there is much more reason for safeguarding the common weal (whereby many are saved from being slain, and innumerable evils both temporal and spiritual prevented), than the bodily safety of an individual. Therefore, for the purpose of safeguarding the common weal of the faithful, it is lawful to carry on a war on holy days, provided there be need for doing so: because it would be to tempt God, if notwithstanding such a need, one were to choose to refrain from fighting.
\nHowever, as soon as the need ceases, it is no longer lawful to fight on a holy day, for the reasons given: wherefore this suffices for the Replies to the Objections.
\nThe Summa Theologica of St. Thomas AquinasSecond and Revised Edition, 1920Literally translated by Fathers of the English Dominican ProvinceOnline Edition Copyright © 2009 by Kevin Knight Nihil Obstat. F. Innocentius Apap, O.P., S.T.M., Censor. Theol.Imprimatur. Edus. Canonicus Surmont, Vicarius Generalis. Westmonasterii.APPROBATIO ORDINISNihil Obstat. F. Raphael Moss, O.P., S.T.L. and F. Leo Moore, O.P., S.T.L.Imprimatur. F. Beda Jarrett, O.P., S.T.L., A.M., Prior Provincialis AngliæMARIÆ IMMACULATÆ - SEDI SAPIENTIÆ
\n[II-II.q.40.a.4.co] Respondeo dicendum, quod Christus in omnibus secundum legis præcepta conversatus est. In cujus signum etiam voluit circumcidi: circumcisio enim est quædam protestatio legis implendæ, secundum illud Galat., v, 3: Testificor omni homini circumcidenti se, quoniam debitor est universæ legis faciendæ. Voluit autem Christus secundum legem conversari: primo quidem, ut legem veterem Edit. Vivès. approbaret; secundo, ut eam observando, in seipso consummaret et terminaret, ostendens quod ad seipsum erat ordinata; tertio, ut Judæis occasionem calumniandi subtraheret; quarto, ut homines a servitute legis liberaret, secundum illud Galat., iv, 4: Misit Deus Filium suum factum sub lege, ut eos qui sub lege erant redimeret.
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