# Articles from Pierer's Conversational Encyclopedia

#### Alluvium

*Pierer's Conversational Encyclopedia, 7th ed., vol. 1, 1888*

*Alluvial formations*, recent formations, alluvial land, geological modern times), rock formations that arise in the present or in historical times through the mediation of water and air. They participate in the formation of the solid earth's crust and thus provide us with a means of recognizing the geological laws of formation in general through inference. For we have long since abandoned the assumption that the individual geological formations were separated by long periods of time and arose through violent revolutions. Today, we are convinced that the older formations were formed exactly according to the same laws that we still observe today in the formation of alluvial deposits. Of course, we can only follow a part of these new formations, because the larger part occurs on the sea floor and will only be uncovered when it rises. If we could also observe these formations, it would most likely be determined that all types of original layered rocks are still being created today. All these newest deposits contain remains of organisms that still live today or at least lived in historical times.

After formation, the A. can be divided into mechanical, chemical and organic, and also into freshwater and marine formations.

The mechanical deposits include: river alluvium, delta formations, dunes and sandbanks, volcanic tuff formations and deposits on the sea floor. River alluvium is formed by the deposition of sand and mud, as well as the debris carried by rivers. Most Alpine lakes are becoming shallower as a result of this process. The deltas of the Nile, the Ganges [etc.] have originated in this way. The sea deposits are partly also formed by the material that the rivers bring into the sea and that is not always deposited directly at the mouths, partly by the action of the sea itself, which washes away material on one coast and deposits it on the other. On flat coasts, this enlargement occurs as dune or mud formation or in the form of sandbanks. The volcanic tuff formations owe their origin to the lapilli and fine, dust-like ash ejected by the volcanoes, which are deposited in the immediate vicinity. Sometimes these products are carried into the sea and deposited on the seabed, along with marine organisms, which then, as fossils, are a valuable addition to such geological records.

Chemical deposits are formed when the substances contained in the springs either precipitate directly at the mouths of the springs or in water pools together with clay and marl. The former is the case with carbonic acid lime earth, iron oxide [etc.]. This results in tufa, 'travertine, siliceous tufa, siliceous sinter and bog iron ore. If we do not find this type of rock formation in older formations, this is not proof that it did not take place there, because the rocks formed in this way undergo such a transformation over time that it is difficult to recognize the shape corresponding to their original formation process in later times. Deposition in calm water accumulations is the case with the salts dissolved in the springs in salt lakes.

Among the organic formations, peat formation is to be considered first. Certain swamp plants grow over each other, with the lower dead ones becoming a (often 15 m) thick layer of a felt-like plant tissue. In this we see the beginning of coal formation, as indeed the lower parts do become similar to brown coal due to the pressure of the upper parts. We also have to consider driftwood deposits as the origin of more recent coal formation. They consist of rivers flowing through forested areas, carrying tree trunks into the sea, where they are then seized by the currents and deposited somewhere. Furthermore, submarine forests, which can be observed below the present sea level (especially on the English coasts), consisting of stuck tree trunks that have probably been transported to their present location by a lowering of the ground, also belong here. Coral reefs and islands that are still forming and growing in the Indian and Pacific Oceans also belong here. Buch and Ehrenberg have shown that the presence of such reefs is always associated with a submarine crater rim, on which the coral animals erected their burrows.

From the formations described here, the laws can be deduced according to which all new formations and transformations of materials on the earth's surface take place. One may only base the assumption on the fact that the laws of formation were always the same, and one will simply, by not allowing any restriction with regard to the times of formation - and nothing forces one to do so - get a unified view of the geological structure and development of our earth. According to this, all the same structures have been created over time by those forces that we still find constantly active today. This view is one of the foundations of our present-day geology.

#### Barrande

*Pierer's Conversational Encyclopedia, 7th ed., vol. 2, 1889*

(spr. barangd'), Joachim, Baron v., geologist and paleontologist, born 10/8 1799 Saugues (Upper Loire), †5/10 1883 Castle Frohsdorf; educator of Count Chambord, last private scholar in Prague. He made a significant contribution to the research of the silurian system in Bohemia. B. wrote: “Système silurien du centre de la Bohême” (Paris and Prague 1852-77, Suppl. 1872; the first part is a major work on trilobites); “Colonie dans le bassin silurien de la Bohême” (Paris 1860); “Defense des colonies” (ibid. and Prague 1861) [etc.

#### Basalt

*Pierer's Konversations-Lexikon, 7th ed., vol. 2, 1889*

Bohemian &edi£, m; Danish Basalt, Seilesten, g; English basalt; French basalte, “n; Gr. Baoavirng, m; Dutch basalt, n; Italian basalto, m; Latin basanites, ae, m; Russian 6asanpis, m; German Basalt, m; Spanish basalto, m; Hungarian somla; cserkö.

A rock of dark green to black color, characterized by columnar, often remarkably regular forms. It sometimes happens that two pieces of column are shaped at their ends so that they connect as if by a hinge (hinge-B.); the spherical-shelled masses are called spherical-B. It consists of labradorite, augite and magnetite and shows a dense (so-called cryptocrystalline) groundmass, in which grains of augite, hornblende, magnesium mica and olivine are grown. Depending on the rock that is predominant in the groundmass, the following are distinguished: feldspar, nepheline and leucite basalts. The following varieties of B-s are distinguished according to texture: 1) common B., which contains no or very few inclusions of crystals, grains [etc.]; 2) porphyry-like B. (B-porphyry) with distinct crystals or crystalline inclusions of olivine, augite, hornblende or feldspar; 3) vesicular or slaggy B., with empty vesicle rims, also called B-lava, found at volcanoes; 4) almond stone-like B. (B-mandelstein), with vesicular cavities that are partially or completely filled with zoolite, calcite, green earth; 5) wacken-like B., basalt wacke; a highly decomposed or never crystalline B., dense, soft, almost earthy, brownish, greenish or yellowish in color, often contains the crystals mixed with the basalt in a very fresh state, as well as the fillings of the bubble spaces (basalt almond stone). Basalt belongs to the volcanic rocks, i.e. to those that have been formed in a fiery way, in such a way that they have risen from the earth's interior as a fiery liquid mass and solidified on the surface. This theory was proposed because its occurrence does not allow for the assumption that it was created by the forces to which the formations of any kind owe their origin. It permeates almost all formations, so it must have broken through them and been inserted between other rocks, as evidenced by the widely spread layers. Sometimes, the occurrence clearly shows how individual pieces broke away from the upward-pushing mass. From the changes that the latter caused in the surrounding rock, one can see the high temperatures of the upward-pushing mass. However, the most common occurrence is in the form of isolated cone mountains, rarely contiguous mountain masses. It can then be clearly seen from the dike under the mountain cone that the mass has formed an opening through which it has flowed upwards and accumulated above it as a cone mountain. The B. easily disintegrates at the contact surfaces of the columns. Between it and the surrounding rocks, there are often iron ore deposits, which in any case were formed by leaching of the B.-s, which is then found decomposed. The soil formed by the weathering of the B-s is very fertile due to its potassium content. Lush green beech forests, with magnificent, diverse flora, can usually be found on the B-kuppen, and wide stretches owe their fertility to decomposed basaltic subsoil, e.g. the Wetterau and Bohemia. The columnar or spherical segregation usually makes the B. unsuitable as a building block, where one cannot layer and use the long columns as such, e.g. in strong fortress walls and bank structures, where it is then almost eternal, as many buildings on the Rhine prove. It is also excellent as a paving stone and road construction material and is used for these purposes frequently and with preference. Individual columns are used as cornerstones, for balustrade posts [etc.]. The Egyptians used them, though rarely, to make sculptures, lions and sphinxes, which have come down to us. As a flux, it is sometimes used in blast furnaces and as an additive to the glass mass of green bottles. B. is only ever found in small areas and usually in individual domes scattered around a larger central mass, which is thought to be the central eruption point. The most important B areas in Central Europe are: the Auvergne in France, where the first classical studies of B areas were carried out and where they offer magnificent natural spectacles, for example in the giant dam of the Volant, a riverbank formed by upright B columns. In England, for example, B. occurs on the Hebrides, where the Fingal Cave on Staffa offers a well-known and rightly praised natural wonder, a 35m high grotto into which one enters from the sea. It is assumed that the surf gradually knocked out the lower columns and thus formed the cave. In Ireland, County Antrim is a well-known B area. The Faroe Islands also show it. In Germany, we find B-e in the Eifel and in the Siebengebirge, with beautiful, columnar segregation, then in the Vogelsberg and the Rhön, in northern Bohemia and in the Sudetes. Some smaller domes in some places, e.g. at Katzenbuckel in the Odenwald, which is known for its beautiful nepheline dolerite, at Kaiserstuhl in the Breisgau, in the Ore Mountains, Lusatia, northern Hesse and other places.

Literature: Lasaulx, Der Streit über die Entstehung des B-s (Verl. 1869); Zirkel, Untersuchungen über die mikroskop. Zusammensetzung u. Struktur der B-steine (Bonn 1870).

#### Berthierite

*Pierers Konversations-Lexikon, 7th ed., vol. 2, 1889*

Mineral, a naturally occurring compound of sulfur antimony with sulfur iron (FeS + Sb? S?) in stalk-like and fibrous aggregates of a steel-gray color. Hardness 2-3; specific weight 4-4.3. It can be found near Braunsdorf (Saxony), near Chazelles (Auvergne), near Anglar (Depart. de la Creuse); it melts easily on contact with coal, releasing antimony vapors. In France, it is used as antimony ore (yield of up to 60% antimony).

#### Beryl

*Pierer's Conversational Encyclopedia, 7th ed., vol. 2, 1889*

(the emerald of the ancients, who also called other green gemstones by that name), silicate mineral in hexagonal crystals that are columnar, individually grown or combined into druses. Hardness 7-8, specific gravity 2.6-2.7, colorless, but usually greenish white, celadon green, oil green, mountain green and colored. Vitreous luster, transparent to translucent. Conchoidal fracture. Negative double refraction, with a cross often separated into two hyperbolas. Chemical composition: Be'(AP)Si°O'*, usually with a little iron oxide. The beautiful B. from the island of Elba is said to contain only 3.3% B-earth. Emerald is the green variety of quartz from Habachtal (Salzburg), Muzo (Columbia), Rosseir (Egypt), the Takowoia River (Ural), Mourne Mountains (Ireland). All other varieties are called beryl. The almost opaque crystals of common beryl can reach a length of 2 meters and a weight of 30 hundredweight. The peculiar behavior of the B-s when heated makes them suitable for cutting in a certain direction to serve as a real gem. Occurrence: Mursinka, Schaitanka, Miask on the Ural, Altai, Grafton between Connecticut and Marimac. - The emerald, as well as the blue and yellow B., are very popular as precious stones.

#### BerzelitPierer's Conversational Encyclopedia, 7th edition, vol. 2, 1889(Kühnit), rare mineral, lime and magnesia arsenate with some manganese oxide. Occurs near Longbanshytta in Sweden.BestegPierer's Conversational Lexicon, 7th ed., vol. 2, 1889the boundary surface of an ore vein against the surrounding rock, if a thin strip of clay or loam lies between them.BeudantPierer's Conversational Encyclopedia, 7th ed., vol. 2, 1889(pronounced bödäng), Francois Sulpice, mineralogist and physicist, born September 5, 1787 in Paris, died December 10, 1850 in the same city. In 1811, B. became professor of mathematics at the Lyceum in Avignon, in 1813 professor of physics at the Collège in Marseille, and in 1815 sub-director of the mineral collection of Louis XVIII. From that time on, he devoted himself specifically to mineralogy. He undertook a mineralogical expedition to Hungary in 1818, which he described in: “Voyage minralogique et geologique en Hongrie” (Paris 1822, 3 vols., with atlas). His ‘Traite elömentaire de mineralogie’ (Paris 1814, 2nd ed. 1830; German Lpz. 1826) was even more influential. In 1824 B. became a member of the Paris Academy. He specialized in the relationship between crystallization and chemical composition, the survival of marine molluscs in fresh water, specific weight and the chemical analysis of minerals. B. also wrote: “Traite @l&mentaire de physique” (6th ed. Paris 1838); “Cours elementaire de mineralogie et de g&ologie” (Paris 1841, 16th ed. 1881; German Stuttg. 1858).BeyrichPierer's Conversational Encyclopedia, 7th edition, vol. 2, 18891) Ferdinand, chemical technician, born November 25, 1812 in Berlin, August 29, 1869 the same; since 1838 pharmacist, he later devoted himself to chemical technology, especially the production of chemicals for photographic purposes, and thus became the founder of this now flourishing industry in Germany. B. also played an outstanding role in the founding of the “Photographic Association” (1864) and the “Association for the Promotion of Photography” (1869).2) Heinrich Ernst, geologist and paleontologist, born August 31, 1815 in Berlin; professor of mineralogy and geology at the University of Berlin, member of the Academy of Sciences since 1853, and now also head of the Geological Survey. Among his writings, the following are particularly noteworthy: “De goniatitis in montibus rhenanis occurrentibus” (Verl. 1837); “Krystallsysteme des Phenakits” (ibid. 1857); “Ueber die Entwicklung des Flözgebirges in Schlesien” (ibid. 1844); “Untersuchungen über Trilobiten” (ibid. 1846, 2 vols.). His achievements in publishing an accurate geological map of Germany deserve special mention. His investigations relate mainly to the Rhenish slate and greywacke mountains. B's wife, born 9/10 1825 Delitzsch, is known as a writer of books for young people under the name Klementine Helm.DyasrormationPierer's Konversations-Lexikon, 7th ed., vol. 4, 1889(Permian formation; see the table “Dyasformation”), in geology the uppermost layer of the Paleozoic period, i.e. the layer directly above the coal formation. The name Permian formation comes from the fact that it is particularly rich in the Permian province in Russia. There it covers an area the size of France. It is called Dyas because in Germany and England it can be divided into two main layers: the Rotliegendes and the Zechstein. The lower layer, or Rotliegendes (Lower New Red Sandstone in English), which on average reaches a thickness of 500 m, and in Bavaria even up to 2000 m, consists mainly of beach formations, namely red sandstone and conglomerates; the upper division, or Zechstein (magnesian limestone in England), consists of bituminous slate, which contains a lot of copper, which is why this formation is also called copper mountains; and gray, impure, marine limestone. In North America, Russia, and other countries, this division into two layers does not exist; in Austria, only the Rotliegendes is present. Where the Rotliegendes occurs so rarely, it is a freshwater formation; but where it is covered by the Zechstein, it is a beach formation, while the Zechstein itself is a marine product that was deposited during continued subsidence. In the Rotliegendes, we distinguish a lower Rotliegendes, which is rich in gray sandstone and slate clay, and an upper Rotliegendes, where red sandstones and conglomerates alternate with layers of slate clay. The mostly round pebbles in the conglomerates are cemented by a quartziferous, clayey or sandstone-like binder colored red by iron oxide. They are mostly debris from older rocks. The sandstones are red, green or gray and have a calcareous or kaolinitic binder. In the upper Rotliegendes in the Mansfeld area, we find white and gray layers (Weißliegendes or Granliegendes) with blood-red or bluish-red slate layers or red slate in between. Coal also extends into the Rotliegendes, but not to the same thickness as in the hard coal period. Organic remains are very rare in the Rotliegend. Particularly noteworthy is the Archegosaurus, which first appears in the Carboniferous period and can be considered the progenitor of the dinosaurs. It was found in 1847 by Dechen in three different species in the Saarbrück coal field near the village of Labach between Strasbourg and Trier. The Archegosaurier were air-breathing reptiles and had feet with distinct toes. The limbs were weak and apparently served only for swimming or crawling. The largest of this species is the Archegosaurus Decheni (Fig. 1). Of the plant forms of the Rotliegendes, the following are worthy of mention: Calamites gigas, Walchia piniformis (Fig. 13). The Zechstein formation is already richer in organisms. The marl slate contains beautiful specimens of fossil fish: Palaeoniscus Freieslebeni Ag. (Fig. 2), Platysomus gibbosus Blainv. (Fig. 3), Pygopterus, Caelacanthus, all of which have melon scales with an asymmetrical tail fin. The overlying fossiliferous limestone contains: Gervillia keratophaga (Fig. 4), a bivalve mollusc, Spirifer undulatus Sow. (Fig. 6), a brachyopod form, Orthis pelargonata Schl. (Fig. 7), Productus horridus Sow. (Fig. 8), found in magnesian limestone, and Fenestella retiformis Schl. (Fig. 9), a bryozoan form. Of the crinoids, we highlight: Poteriocrinus, Cyathocrinus (e.g. C. ramosus Schl., Fig. 10), Pentremites, Actinocrinus, Platycrinus. One of the uppermost layers is the crystalline or concretionary limestone; it contains Schizodus Schlotheimii Sow. (Fig. 5) and Mytilus septifer. Of the plant forms, we also highlight the ferns Neuropteris flexuosa Brogn. (Fig. 11) and Sphenopteris trifoliata Brogn. (Fig. 12), which, however, appear in more varied forms in the coal period. The Rotliegend period saw many eruptions, which gave rise to the numerous felsite porphyries, granite porphyries and porphyries that are found interspersed with the sedimentary rocks here. The D. is the uppermost of the Palaeozoic periods; at the end of it most of the organic forms that had existed until then had died out, and a new, more diverse organic world emerged.Literature: Geinitz, Dyas (Lpz. 1861, Nachträge dazu 1880 u. 1882); Speier, Die Zechsteinformation des westlichen Harzrandes (Berl. 1880); Weiß, Fossile Flora der jüngsten Steinkohlenformation u. des Rotliegenden im Saar-Rhein-Gebiet (Bonn 1869-72).Ice AgePierer's Conversational Encyclopedia, 7th ed., vol. 4, 1889(glacial period), geological period of the Diluvium, at the end of the Tertiary period, thus immediately before the beginning of the geological present. The E. is a period in which a very low mean temperature prevailed, so that the glaciers spread over a much larger area of Europe than they do now. We can prove this greater glacier development from many details. Where glaciers advance over rocky surfaces, we find everywhere smoothly polished domes, fine cracks, parallel channels and furrows, which result from the friction of the moving ice with the rock. Then the glacier also takes the products of friction with it and deposits them as moraine debris. Larger pieces of rock debris (boulders, erratic blocks) can also be transported by glaciers from their original locations to new ones, so that they then appear in a geologically completely alien environment. Where we now see clear evidence of such effects, we must assume that the ground was once covered by glaciers. Thus, in the Alps, we find that the glaciers of the Bernese Oberland must once have reached as far as the Jura. One can in fact trace their path precisely through moraines, erratic blocks, ring-shaped pieces of rock, etc. Pierre de Bot, for example, is an erratic block of 10 m in circumference on a 275 m high mountain in the Jura, which could only have come there by being transported by a glacier from the south, because it consists of a material that only occurs in the Alps. Near Zurich, rock debris from the Glarus Alps can be found, and on the northern shore of Lake Constance in Bavaria and Baden, debris from the most remote valleys of Graubünden. The Pflugstein near Zurich, originating from the Glarus Alps, is 20 meters high. One finds almost everywhere along the paths that these boulders must have taken, fragments that crumbled during transport. It is impossible that the transportation of these rock masses occurred in any other way than by glaciers, because have been transported by rivers, they are too large; but if the area had been covered by the sea and the sea had carried the debris away from its original location, then they could only have been deposited at the bottom of the sea, not at heights of up to 700 meters above sea level, where they are found. Furthermore, it would be impossible to explain why the rock material transported, for example, is different on the left of the Reuss valley from that on the right. If the area had once been the bottom of the sea, the present river valleys could not have played any role at all. If we follow the glacial traces mentioned, we arrive at the assumption of the following large glaciers that must have existed in the E. in the Alps: a) The Arve glacier, from Montblanc to the SW edge of the Swiss Jura. b) The Rhone glacier, from the St. Gotthard and Monte Rosa; spread out in a fan-like shape and extended on the one hand to Geneva, on the other to Solothurn. c) The Aargletscher, from the Bernese Oberland to above Bern. d) The Reußgletscher, from the St. Gotthard over the Vierwaldstätter and Zuger See. e) The Linthgletscher, from the Tödi to Zurich. f) The Rhine Glacier, from Graubünden to the Wallensee, and in places as far as the Danube. g) The four glaciers of the Ticino, the Adda, the Oglio, the Mincio. Even if we go further east, we find clear traces of such glaciers: the Iller, Inn, Salzach glaciers. The Pyrenees were also covered by glaciers in the past. Furthermore, we can see traces in the French Central Uplands, in the Vosges, in the Black Forest, Bohemian Forest, Thuringian Forest, Franconian Forest, in the Vogtland, Giant Mountains, the Harz Mountains, the Carpathians and in Scandinavia. The northern regions of Russia, as well as Scotland and England, had a mighty glacier development and, as Abich and the Geneva geologist Favre have recently demonstrated, the Caucasus also shows the effects of former glacier cover. They are absent from the Balkan Peninsula. We do not know exactly how far they extend into Asia. Bernhard v. Cotta and G. v. Helmersen have shown that the Altai is free of them. From all this it can be seen that in the whole of Central Europe and in a part of Asia (perhaps as far as the Altai) a glaciation must have prevailed in which the glaciers had a great extent that cannot be compared with the present one.Now, however, we also find erratic blocks in the North German Plain, which, due to their angular shape and their scratches and cracks, can hardly owe their present position to anything other than glacial action. In addition, there is also boulder clay, a mass without layers, which, like the ground moraine of the glaciers, looks like water deposits. At the same time, however, we encounter very distinct diluvial formations, which clearly indicate that these areas were once covered by water. The latter circumstance led to the so-called drift theory, according to which the erratic blocks in the North German Plain also came down only on floating icebergs from Scandinavia and remained on the seabed when the ice melted. The most likely scenario, however, is that the areas of Central Europe were covered by a shallow sea, and that the effect of the glaciers combined with that of the water. Where the ice masses at the glacier terminations were thicker than the depth of the sea, they could not break away and float away, but advanced on the lake floor, depositing the unstratified layers of boulder clay beneath them. Where this did not happen, the pieces of ice swam from the edge of the glacier into the sea, the frozen ground moraine (see glacier) thawed and fell together with larger rock debris into the depths, where it settled in regular layers. As in Europe and Asia, glaciers in North America once seemed to have spread much further than they do today. Glacial striations and scratches can be found in Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick and in the northern regions of the United States. Moraine trains and erratic blocks also bear witness to this glacial development. The fact that only the northern slopes of the mountains and hills bear traces of glaciers suggests that the glaciers extended from north to south.There have been attempts to assume that the southern hemisphere had a simultaneous glaciation as in the northern hemisphere. In particular, Agassiz claimed to have found evidence of this during his trip to South America in 1865; however, it all turned out to be erroneous. The erratic boulders in South America may just as well have originated at an earlier or later time than those in North America, so that the southern earth flow, if it exists at all, must in any case not coincide with the northern one. There have also been attempts to prove the existence of even older earth flows than those at the end of the Tertiary period. Gastaldi believed he had discovered traces of it in the Miocene layers of Turin, Godwin-Austen in the Cretaceous of England and in the coal formations of France, Escher v. d. Linth in the Cretaceous of the Alps, Ramsay in the Dyas of England, Sorby in the Old Red Sandstone of Scotland. All these claims should be treated with caution until they have been more precisely confirmed. For the time being, it is only geology that can explain the E. of the northern hemisphere that has undoubtedly existed; because, in contrast to the currently accepted (Kant-Laplace) view that the present temperature conditions of the Earth have arisen through gradual cooling from a fiery-liquid state, it seems a complete contradiction that the much warmer periods, which must have preceded the ice age without fail, were followed by a cold period as described. Various explanations of the ice age have now been attempted. The most important of these are as follows: 1) that our solar system would alternately pass through warmer and colder parts of space; 2) changes in the amount of heat radiated; 3) greater height of mountains; 4) the transformation of African lake basins into desert and, as a result, the transformation of the winds blowing over the northern regions, and consequently the change of the winds from cold to warm in the regions over the northern regions; 5) changes in the distribution of land and water on the earth's surface; 6) periodic changes in the position of the earth's axis. Of all these assumptions, only the last two are to be considered; the first three are unfounded hypotheses, not supported by any facts; the fourth is refuted by Dove's objection that, given the current extent of the Sahara basin, if it was a lake basin, that explanation would only suffice for a field located further east than the Alps. But even if one assumes a greater expansion of the Sahara, one could perhaps explain the ice formations of the Alps, but by no means those of the Vosges, England, Scotland and Scandinavia. But one can explain very significant climatic changes if one assumes a change in the distribution of water and land. This can be seen from the fact that in the southern hemisphere, where there is much more water than in the northern hemisphere, the temperature conditions at the same latitude are significantly different. On the southern tip of South America, on the coasts of Chile, glaciers descend to the sea at the same geographical latitude as our Alps. Now, however, it follows from what has been said earlier that there must have been a sea area between the two regions, that of the Alps on the one hand and the English, Scottish and Scandinavian glacier areas on the other. At the same time, the nature of the coral islands indicates that, in all likelihood, a larger mass of water must have prevailed in the northern hemisphere during that period, and a larger land mass in the southern hemisphere. Darwin has indeed demonstrated from the structure of these islands that the land must have sunk by 1000-3000 feet in a more recent geological period. A lowering of the ground in the southern hemisphere was, however, always accompanied by a drainage of water from the north, so that we are dealing with a true relocation of the seas, which makes this explanation possible. A picture of the distribution of land and water in the northern hemisphere during the ice age, based on what came before, would be something like the following: Europe formed an elongated island stretching from east to west; the northern coastal countries of this continent, such as Holland, northern Germany, Denmark, Poland, and large parts of Russia, were underwater; the English, Scottish, and Scandinavian glaciers jutted out of this sea like islands. The steppes of Siberia between Altai and the Urals were also covered by this sea, and there was probably a waterway from this sea to the Mediterranean. The southern shore of the great sea was probably located along a line from the Urals via Tula, through Poland, along the Sudetes and the Giant Mountains, via Thuringia, then turning northeast to the Harz Mountains, along the northern edge of the latter through southern Hanover, Westphalia to Bonn and then through Belgium to Calais. Between the Lusatian and the Ore Mountains, there seem to have been some bays extending into Bohemia.In addition to the explanation just given, there is another one based on astronomical conditions. Due to the eccentricity of the Earth's orbit, the Earth does not always move at the same speed, but faster when it is close to the Sun and slower when it is far from the Sun. Therefore, the hemisphere that experiences winter during the time when the sun is close to it experiences a longer winter than the other hemisphere. But now the axis of the earth changes its position in relation to the sun; therefore, the time of a longer winter will not always occur for the same hemisphere. The earth's axis describes a full revolution in 21,000 years, and during this time the winters and summers will be the same twice (once for the northern hemisphere and once for the southern hemisphere). But for 10,500 years the northern hemisphere and for the same length of time the southern hemisphere will have longer winters. But if the winter is considerably longer than the summer in one hemisphere, then the mean annual temperature can drop so much that a cold period is possible. According to astronomical calculations, however, this difference can increase to a maximum of 36 days. Both this and the previous explanation are possible, and the E. could have arisen from the interaction of the two causes. In either case, we must assume that the ice ages in the northern and southern hemispheres did not occur simultaneously, which, as mentioned, is not substantiated by anything.Literature: Heer, Die Urwelt der Schweiz (Zurich 1865); Völker, Eine auf physische u. mathematische Gesetze begründete Erklärung der Ursache der E. (St. Gallen 1877); Kjerulf, Die E. (Berlin 1878); Penck, Die Vergletscherung der deutschen Alpen (Lpz. 1882); Ders., Die E. in den Pyrenäen (ibid. 1885).FraasPierer's Konversations-Lexikon, 7th ed., vol. 5, 18902) Oskar F., geologist, born 17/1 1824 Lorch (Württemberg), first studied theology and then turned to the natural sciences. Until 1847 he was a curate in Balingen and in the same year went to Paris to hear d'Orbigny and Elie de Beaumont. In 1848 he became a curate in Leutkirch, then a pastor in Lauffen, and since 1853 he has been a curator of the natural history cabinet in Stuttgart. F. focused his main activity on the geological research of southern Germany. In 1864, F. traveled in the Orient, where he paid particular attention to the Jura of Palestine. In 1866, he made the important discovery of the Schussenried human remains, described in his writing: “The finds at the source of the Schussen in Swabia” (Stuttgart 1867), and in 1871 further cave excavations. Furthermore, as a Stuttgart city councilor, he devoted himself to the excavation of artesian wells, the question of sewerage and waste disposal, took over the management of the Württemberg Wine Improvement Society and, in 1875, explored Lebanon in a geological sense on behalf of Rustem Pasha, Governor General of Lebanon. In 1872 ff. F. was co-chairman of the German Anthropological Society. He wrote: “Die nutzbaren Mineralien Württembergs” (Stuttgart 1860); “Fauna v. Steinheim, mit Rücksicht auf die miocänen Säugetier- u. Vögelreste” (ibid. 1870); “Aus dem Orient” (ibid. 1867); “Vor der Sündflut” (3rd ed. ibid. 1870); “Three Months in Lebanon” (2nd ed. ibid. 1876); “Geological Observations in Lebanon” (ibid. 1878); “A&tosaurus ferratus, the armored bird lizard from the Stubensandstein near Stuttgart” (ibid. 1877); “Württemberg's Railways with the Country and People at the Railway” (ibid. 1880); “Geognostic Description of Württemberg, Baden and Hohenzollern” (ibid. 1882).FritschPierer's Conversational Encyclopedia, 7th edition, vol. 6, 18905) Karl v. F, geologist and traveler, born 11/11 1838 Weimar, since 1876 full Prof. of Geology at the University of Halle; studied natural sciences in Göttingen from 1860-62, traveled to Madeira and the Canary Islands in 1862, habilitated in Zurich in 1863, made a trip to Santorini in 1866, became a lecturer in mineralogy and Geology at the Senckenberg Natural History Museum in Frankfurt am Main; as its director, he traveled to Morocco in 1872 and came to Halle as a professor in 1873. He wrote: “Reisebilder von den Kanarischen Inseln” (Gotha 1867); “Das Gotthardgebiet” (Beiträge zur geologischen Karte der Schweiz, 15. Liefg., Bern 1873); “Allgemeine Geologie” (Stuttgart 1888); with Hartung and Reiß: “Tenerife, geologically and topographically presented” (ibid. 1867); with Reiß: “Geological description of the island of Tenerife” (Winterthur 1868).Iron orePierer's Conversational Encyclopedia, 7th ed., vol. 6, 1890(gelbeisenstein, yellow glass head, yellow iron ochre, xanthosiderite), mineral from the group of sulfates, in kidney-shaped, tuberous forms, earthy, yellow ochre. Hardness 2.5-3; density 2.7-2.9; chemical composition: K?SO? + 4(Fe2)S'O” + 9H?O*. Deposits: Kolosoruck u. Tschermig, Bohemia; Modum, Norway. Used for smelting iron.GeologyPierer's Conversational Encyclopedia, 7th ed., vol. 6, 1890Czech zemäzpyt, m; zemöväda, fi zemäslovi, n; Danish geologi, g; English geology; French géologie, f; Greek yealoyin; Dutch geologie, f; Italian geologia, f; Latin geologia, f; Swedish geologi, f; Spanish geologia, f; Hungarian földtan.Geology (Greek, v. g Earth, lögos Science), the science of the structure and development of the solid earth's components. Concept and classification. Geology is divided into a descriptive part, geognosy, which familiarizes us with the composition of the earth in its present state, and a speculative part, geogeny, which shows us how this present state has gradually developed. Of general geology, the part that deals with the solid earth's crust, which is the only one accessible to us, is usually treated separately as special geology and divided into the following sections: 1) petrography (lithology), i.e. the study of the rocks that form the solid earth's crust; 2) geotectonics, i.e. the study of the layers (stratigraphy) and the conditions in which the rocks are found, and 3) the study of formations (historical G.), i.e. the study of the succession of layers, their gradual formation and their evolutionary relationships to present-day fauna and flora (petrefactology, paleontology, petrology).History. The origins of geological science are to be found, on the one hand, in the myths and legends of nations about the origin of outstanding natural phenomena and, on the other hand, in the philosophical and theological views of the Bible and the older philosophers such as Empedocles, Megasthenes, Hekataeus, about the formation of the earth. Aristotle had already developed a complete geological hypothesis to the effect that the Earth is a large organism in which the various parts have a different degree of moisture at different times, and from this he concluded that land and water change periodically. Leonardo da Vinci concluded that the sea floor had once existed from the presence of fossils. In the Middle Ages, when science was completely dependent on theology, it was not possible to develop geology. This also required a thorough knowledge of minerals, in which direction the German physician Georg Agricola (1490-1555) broke new ground by founding scientific mineralogy. Fabius Colonna distinguished between land and sea conchylia in 1616. But the fame of having first introduced geology as a separate science belongs to Niels Stenon (1631-86), a Dane; in 1669 he published “De solido inter solidum naturaliter contento”, from which Elie de Beaumont provided an excerpt in the “Ann. des sc. nat.” in 1831 T. XXV. Stenon already recognized that the solid earth's crust consists of layers one on top of the other with characteristic fossils that have been brought out of their original position by earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. He attributed the veins to the filling of crevices that were caused by those disturbances in the regular succession of the layers. The Englishman Martin Lister (1638-1712) explained the volcanoes by the decomposition and ignition of underground sulfur deposits. In his “Lectures on Earthquakes,” his fellow countryman Robert Hooke (1635-1703) tried to prove that all fossils come from extinct organisms. From the fossils in England, he concludes that this country was once covered by the sea. In his work “Iconographia lithophilocii britanici” (1689), Ed. Eloyd expresses the view that there are very specific fossils in each layer. Thus, the theory of index fossils, which was only established in the 19th century by V. Smith, was already present in his work. In his work “Essay towards a natural history of the earth”, John Woodward demonstrated that fossils originate partly from terrestrial and partly from marine organisms. He thus already contains an echo of the facies theory established by Voltz in the 19th century. In 1702, J. Petifer provided the first illustrations of plant fossils. In 1709, Gottfr. Mylius established a sequence of strata of the Thuringian Zechstein. In 1721, Ant. Valisneri expressed the view that the fossils had been deposited by the sea and the rivers, and that the Flood had not played a role in this. In 1740 Lazaro Moro published the book “Dei crostacei e degli alteri marini corpi che trovamo nei monti”. In 1756 Füchsel gained the view of an original horizontal stratification of all mountain layers, attributed the uneven stratification of the same to an uplift and displacement of the ground, and was the first to introduce the concept of formation. Also worthy of mention during this period are P.S. Pallas (1741-1811) and Horace de Saussure (1740-99). In 1780, Abr. Gottl. Werner created a completely new geognostic system. He was the first to observe the stratification and bedding of the rocks in more detail and developed the concept of formation in such a way that he understood it to mean a geological sequence of strata that had been formed under the same conditions. He regarded the formation of the solid earth's crust as purely Neptunian and volcanic activity as completely subordinate. Earthquakes are the cause of volcanic activity. He did not accept the uplift and subsidence of the layers. The layers should have formed completely regularly through successive submergence in water. He won a large number of students, although his theory was fiercely attacked. His opponents were Füchsel, Voigt, Charpentier, but especially the Englishman James Hutton (1726-97), who hypothesized that all crystalline rocks had risen up in a molten state. The two conflicting views of Werner and Hutton divided the geologists of the time into two strictly separate parties, who feuded with each other in the most violent manner.William Smith (1769-1834) recognized the uniform stratification of the rocks in southeastern England on his numerous travels and skillfully used the fossils to identify the individual layers, thus laying the foundation for today's theory of formations. The Geological Society of London (1810) and the first geognostic map of England with exact profiles (1815) were the result of his efforts.Of Werner's numerous students, Leopold von Buch (1774-1853) deserves special mention. His extensive travels enabled him to make observations on a larger scale. In Italy, and especially in Auvergne (1812), he became convinced that volcanoes must be something independent of terrestrial fires, and that the basalts, which are most closely related to the lavas, and whose aqueous origin he had once been the most ardent defender of, as well as granite, are volcanic formations. Here he formulated the idea of uplift craters, which, further developed, would soon lead to the idea of the most magnificent volcanic uplifts. Buch pointed out that the volcanoes of very different areas have a row-like arrangement, and that these rows correspond to large crevices from which they have emerged through underground forces. Buch also conducted numerous sensational investigations into porphyry and the transformation of limestone into dolomite through the penetration of volcanic magnesia vapors. Alex. v. Humboldt (1769 to 1859) gained important insights into volcanoes and earthquakes as well as the general geognostic conditions of those areas on his travels to America and Asian Russia. Educated at Werner's school, he initially advocated the Neptunian origin of basalts, like his friend L.v. Buch the Neptunian origin of the basalts, but then also joined the volcanic school. In France, despite the objective and commendable descriptions of domestic and foreign conditions by Faujas de Saint-Fond (1741-1819) and Dolomieu (1750-1801), perhaps in reaction to the hypothetical theories of the formation of the earth by Buffon and de la Mötherie, by d'Aubuisson (1769-1841), Heron de Villefosse (1774-1852) [etc.], introduced Werner's teachings. In Germany, it was especially A. Boue who adopted Hutton's ideas.The most important investigations for the G. during this period were delivered by G. Cuvier and Alex. Brongniart; these were the first to establish the deviation of the organic remains even in the youngest periods of the present world, and this already undermined the sharp demarcation of the individual formations, explained by earth revolutions. v. Buch had already demonstrated secular uplifts and subsidence of large areas, but still assumed sudden dislocations for the elevation of the mountains. Here, for the first time, de la Beche and Poullet Scrope, but especially Karl von Hoff (1771-1837) in the prize-winning work “History of the Natural Changes in the Earth's Surface as Proven by Tradition”, pointed out the effect over longer periods of time, analogous to the changes in the solid earth's crust that are taking place today. Charles Lyell published his “Principles of Geology” in 1831-32, in which he demonstrated that the same results could be achieved by changing the distribution of water and land, by slowly raising and lowering the ground, as by completely hypothetical and unscientific catastrophes. Lyell cites the ongoing changes in their slow, but over the course of time powerful effects and explains them using many precisely executed examples, for which his observations collected on extensive travels came in handy. Without prejudice, he indicates the extent to which the effects of existing changes can be given and shows how volcanic forces can be used for the theory. The slow changes in the solid crust described by Lyell created a favorable ground for the metamorphism described by Bou&, and geologists rushed to investigate the details of this rapidly emerging developmental moment and to conduct the most in-depth, even chemical, investigations. Most successful in the exploitation of chemical processes in the service of geology was Bishop, who has the great merit of having placed chemistry in the service of geology. He was the first to point out the importance of chemical analysis in explaining the origin of geological processes. At present, the G. regards it as its task, through complete empirical knowledge of the composition of the entire earth's crust, as far as completeness is possible, to gradually understand the process of its formation.Literature: Maps: Dumont, Carte geologique de la Belgique, 1:833333 and 1:160000 (1836-49); ibid., Carte geologique de l'Europe, 1:4000000 (Paris and Liege 1850); Dufrenoy and Elie De Beaumont, Carte geologique de la France, 1:500000 (Paris 1840); Gümbel, Geognostische Karte des Königreichs Bayern u. der angrenzenden Länder, 1:500000 (Munich 1855); Bach, Geognostische Übersichtskarte v. Germany, Switzerland and the neighboring countries (Gotha 1855, 9 sheets); Bach, Geological Map of Central Europe (Stuttgart 1859), 1:450000 (ibid. 1860); Staring, Geol. kaart van Nederland, 1:200000, with a summary map at 1: 1500000 (Haarlem 1858-67); Phillips, Geological map of the British Isles and adjacent coast of France, 1:1500000 (2nd ed. Lond. 1862); Studer u. Escher v. der Linth, Carte geologique de la Suisse, 1:760000 (2nd ed. Winterthur 1867; Übersichtskarte in 1:380.000, 2nd ed. ibid. 1872); Hauer, Geologische Übersichtskarte der österr.-ungar. Monarchie, 1:576000 (Vienna 1867-76, 12 sheets); Ders., Geologische Karte v. Austria-Hungary, 1:2026000 (4th ed. ibid. 1884); Dechen, Geognostische Übersichtskarte v. Deutschland, Frankreich, England u. den angrenzenden Ländern, 1:2500000 (2nd ed. Berl. 1869); Ders., Geologische Karte v. Germany, 1:2000000 (ibid. 1870); Marcon, Carte geologique de la terre, 1:23000000 (Zurich 1875); Carta geologica d'Italia, 1:1111111 (Rome 1881); Fraas, Geognostic wall map of Württemberg, Baden and Hohenzollern, 1:280000 (Stuttgart 1882); Geological Map of Sweden (1862 to the present, still incomplete), 1:5000; Theodor Kjerulf, Geologisk overtigts kart over det sydlige Norge (Christiania 1871). - Cf. also the article Geological Survey. Textbooks: Lyell, Principles of geology (Lond. 1830-1832; 12th ed. 1876, 2 vols.); idem, Elements of geology (ibid. 1838, 6th ed. 1865); Naumann, Lehrbuch der Geognosie (2nd ed. Lpz. 1858-72, unfinished); Quenstedt, Epochen der Natur (Tübing. 1861); Bischof, Lehrbuch der chemischen u. physikalischen G. (2nd ed. Bonn 1863-66); Vogelsang, Philosophie der G. u. mikroskopische Gesteinsstudien (ibid. 1867); Senft, Lehrbuch der Mineralien- u. Felsartenkunde (Jena 1869); Ders., Synopsis der Mineralogie u. Geognosie (Hannov. 1876 u. 78, 2 Tle.); Ders., Fels u. Erdboden (Münch. 1876); Stoppano, Corso di geologia (Mail. 1871); Pfaff, Allgemeine G. als exakte Wissenschaft (Lpz. 1873); Cotta, G. der Gegenwart (4th ed. ibid. 1874); Hauer, Die G. u. ihre Anwendung auf die Kenntnis der Bodenbeschaffenheit der österr.-ungar. Monarchy (2nd ed. Vienna 1877); Brauns, Die technische G. (Halle 1878); Daubree, Etudes synthetiques de g&ologie exp&rimentale (Par. 1879; German v. Gurlt, Brunswick 1880); Heer, Urwelt der Schweiz (2nd ed. Zurich 1879); Vogt, Lehrbuch der G. u. Petrefaktenkunde (4th ed. Brunswick 1879); Roth, Allgemeine u. chemische G. (Berlin 1879ff.); Dana, Manual of geology (10th ed. Philad. 1880); Gümbel, Grundzüge der G. (Kass. 1884 ff.); Leonhard, Grundzüge der Geognosie u. G. (4th ed., ed. v. Hörnes, Lpz. 1885); Geikie, Textbook of geology (2nd ed. Lond. 1885); Suess, Das Antlitz der Erde (Prag u. Lpz. 1885, Bd. 2, 1888); Neumayr, Erdgeschichte (Lpz. 1886 u. 1887, 2 Bde.); Credner, Elemente der G. (6th ed. ibid. 1887); v. Fritsch, Allgemeine G. (Stuttg. 1888); Reyer, Theoretische G. (ibid. 1888). Microscopic structure: Zirkel, Die mikroskopische Beschaffenheit der Mineralien u. Gesteine (Lpz. 1873); Cohen, Sammlung v. Mikrophotographien zur Veranschaulichung der mikroskopischen Struktur v. Mineralien u. Gesteine (Stuttg. 1884); Rosenbusch, Mikroskopische Physiographie der petrographisch wichtigen Mineralien (2nd ed. ibid. 1885); idem, Mikroskopische Physiographie der massigen Gesteine (2nd ed. ibid. 1886-87, vols. 1 and 2); idem, Hilfstabellen zur mikroskopischen Mineralbestimmung in Gesteinen (ibid. 1888). Paleontological works: Goldfuß, Petrefacta Germaniae (Düsseldorf 1826-44); Quenstedt, Petrefaktenkunde Deutschlands (Tübingen u. Lpz. 1846 ff., unvollendet); Ders., Handbuch der Petrefaktenkunde (3. Aufl. Tübing. 1885); Zittel, Aus der Urzeit (2. Aufl. Münch. 1875); Ders., Handbuch der Paläontologie (ebd. 1876ff., Paläophytologie v. Schimper and Schenk); Hörnes, Elements of Paleontology (Lpz. 1884); Schenk, The fossil plant remains (Breslau 1888). - Works of historical content: Hoffmann, History of Geognosy (Berlin 1838); Cotta, Contributions to the History of G. (Lpz. 1877).Journals [etc.]: Except for the communications of the various geological state institutes (“Yearbook” of the Royal Prussian Geologischen Landesanstalt u. Bergakademie zu Berlin, «Jahrbuch» der k. k. Geologischen Reichsanstalt zu Wien, «Abhandlungen» der großherzogl. hess. Geologischen Landesanstalt zu Darmstadt [etc.]) «Jahrbuch für Mineralogie u. G.» (Stuttg., since 1830, as continuation of the «Mineralogischen Jahrbuchs», 1807 v. Leonhard founded); “Zeitschrift der deutschen Geologischen Gesellschaft” (Berl., since 1848); “Transactions”, “Proceedings” and “Quarterly Journal” of the Geological Society of London; “Geological Magazine” (Lond., since 1864); “Bulletin de la Societ£ geologique de France” (Paris); Bulletino del R. Comitato geologico d'Italia; Mineralogische und petrographische Mitteilungen (edited by Tschermak, Vienna, since 1878); Palaeontographica (Cassel, later Leipzig); Paläontologische Abhandlungen (edited by Dames and Kayser, Berlin). See also the literature on the article Gesteine.Collections: In most residences as state collections, also in connection with the geological state institutes, many universities [etc.], available as an aid to the study of G.Geological-Agronomic Lowland SurveyPierers Konversations-Lexikon, 7th ed., vol. 6, 1890A map created by the Geological Survey of Prussia, showing the geological conditions of the North German Plain insofar as they are important for agriculture. The geological structure of the soil is taken into account to such a depth as it still has significance for agriculture. Such a map provides information about the orography and topography of an area, the geological dependency and the relative age of the layers (through different colors and lettering), then the rock diversity of the individual layer parts in one and the same layer (through different hatching), and also information about the thickness of the topsoil and the subsoil. The deposits consist of alluvium and diluvium, i.e. layers of loam, marl, clay, sand, boulders, debris and peat layers [etc.]. If, for example, you see the designation 179 T6-8 on a map, this means that a peat layer 6-8 cm thick and a clay layer 7-9 cm thick lie on a sandy base. These data are based on drillings, of which a larger number are always taken together and the arithmetic mean of the measurements obtained is entered on the maps. However, on special request, the results of all drillings can be obtained on special maps. On each map, the corresponding soil profiles are given in the margin, along with an explanation of the colors and symbols. The explanations included with each sheet contain geological and petrographic data as well as analyses of the soil types. The scale of the maps is 1:25000. The following areas have already been mapped: the area around Berlin, the Elbe area, the Havel area, the Uckermark, East and West Prussia. Similar surveys have also been carried out for Saxony and the Strasbourg area.Geological formationsPierer's Conversational Encyclopedia, 7th ed., vol. 6, 1890(Mountain formations, geological system; see the table “Geological Formations”), mountain ranges characterized by common properties of bedding, structure, etc. The layered mountain ranges of our earth show a certain sequence of age due to their superimposition, in such a way that the ranges prove to be the younger the further up they are found. This can be seen from the fact that the higher the layers are, the more perfect the animal remains become. A group of layers that shows a certain uniformity in its organic remains compared to others is called a formation and the period of time necessary for its formation is called a geological period. If the formation of the strata had taken place without any disturbance, then they would have to merge steadily into one another, and the remains of organisms would also have to form a continuous series of development from the bottom to the top, from the most imperfect creature to today's living world. But this is not the case. In many cases, what was once the bottom of the sea later became dry land, which interrupted the formation of layers for a long time, or other similar disturbances took place. This often forces us, when we want to establish a geological system of formations, to look for the transitional links between two superimposed layers in geographically distant areas where the conditions were again favorable for the deposition of these links. During a formation, certain organic types usually predominate, which then give it its character and are called index fossils. If we start with the uppermost geological period, we get the following descending series of formations:


Table of formations. IMAGEThe anthropozoic period or present time of the earth. Alluvium or young quaternary formations with recent fresh and salt water formations, peat bogs, coral structures and modern volcanic products. Diluvium or old quaternary formations, divided into the postglacial stage, the ice age and the preglacial stage. During this period we already find prehistoric man and the mammoth. The present time is also referred to as the time of the third large mammal fauna. Remains of mammoths, cave bears, aurochs, musk oxen, horses, etc. have been found. Based on the tools that have been discovered in caves, lakes, and moors in the present day, the period is divided into the Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages, depending on the materials from which these tools are made. The Cenozoic period, or the modern times of the earth, is divided into the Neogene formation, or younger Tertiary formation, and the Eocene formation, or older Tertiary formation. The first is further divided into a) a freshwater stage, b) a Sarmatian stage, partly consisting of marine and partly of brackish deposits; c) a Mediterranean stage. The Eocene consists of an upper division and a lower division. The Neogene contains the second large mammal fauna (mastodon, dinotherium), the Eocene the first (palaeotherium). The Tertiary contains solid conglomerates, limestones, sandstones, slates, loose sand, and clays. The marine deposits contain a great deal of salt, gypsum, sulphur, and petroleum, while the freshwater strata contain lignites. This is why they are also called the brown coal mountains. The Mesozoic period or the Middle Ages of the earth. The following formations belong to this period: the Cretaceous, consisting of an upper division (chalk, marl, sandstone, containing quartzite sandstone), a middle division (limestone, sandstone, clay, marl) and a lower division. In the upper division the first deciduous woods appear; in the lower and middle divisions ammonites and belemnites are common, which already become extinct in the upper division. Between the Cretaceous and the next lower formation, the so-called Wealden formation is embedded, with large land saurians. The Jurassic formation also breaks down into an upper section (Malm or White Jurassic) with the first bony fish, turtles, flying lizards and birds; a middle division (Dogger or brown Jurassic) with marsupials and large belemnites; a lower division (Lias or black Jurassic) with pentacrinites, belemnites, ammonites and marine reptiles. The flora consists of cryptogams, conifers and cicadæ. The so-called Rhaetian strata, with the oldest remains of mammals (Microlestes, a type of opossum), form the transitional link to the next group. The Triassic formation or Salzgebirge, consisting of an upper section (Keuper) with saurian amphibians and crocodiles; a middle section (Muschelkalk) with sea lilies and the first long-tailed crabs. In the Triassic of the Alps, the first ammonites can be found; a lower section (colorful sandstone) with giant horsetails, palms and conifers.The Paleozoic period, or the ancient history of the earth. It is divided into the Permian formation (Dyas or Kupfergebirge). The first reptiles and amphibians appear here, along with many unequal-tailed ganoids (Ganoidei). It is divided into an upper section (consisting mainly of copper) and a lower section (Rotliegendes); the Carboniferous formation or coal mountains; contains an upper section (productive coal mountain) with the first spiders and insects and a lower section (mountain limestone, Kulmschichten) with many crinoid forms. The Devonian formation, or the younger graywacke mountains. In the old red sandstone of Scotland, which forms the uppermost section, armored fish appear as characteristic forms; in the middle section we find land cryptogams, corals; in the lower section, mollusks and trilobites. The Silurian formation, or the older graywacke mountains, contains the richest gold, iron, lead, and copper ores, is the age of trilobites (which already became extinct in the Carboniferous period) and graphtolites. The archaic period or the primeval times of the earth. This includes the oldest rock formations on earth that are known and are referred to as bedrock or primary rock. They are rich in useful minerals; of precious metals, gold, silver, platinum are found; of base metals, lead, copper, tin, iron, cobalt, nickel, antimony; of precious stones, diamond, ruby, sapphire, spinel, emerald, aquamarine, zircon, topaz, garnet, beryl, tourmaline. The rocks of this period are azoic, i.e. they contain no visible organic remains. However, one should not conclude from this that no organic beings lived in this oldest geological period; they just approached the mineral form so strongly that their organic origin is not recognizable to us. - For the literature, see under the articles Geology and Rocks.Geological SocietiesPierers Konversations-Lexikon, 7th ed., vol. 6, 1890Scientific associations for the purpose of geological research in individual countries. Such societies include: Geological Society of London, Royal Geological Society of Ireland, the German G.G. in Berlin, the Societ& g&ologique de la France, Societe Belge de G£ologie, de Pal&ontologie et d'Hydrologie, Societä Italiana di Scienze Naturali in Milan and Societä Geologica Italiana in Rome; Sweden and Switzerland also have similar bodies. Since 1878, an institute has been created in the international geological congresses for the exchange of ideas between all geologists. Their main task is to achieve an agreement on nomenclature, coloring and signs on geological maps and in books. Furthermore, they are responsible for the joint publication of a geological overview map. Geological congresses were: 1878 Paris, 1881 Bologna, 1885 Berlin, 1889 London.Geological State InstitutesPierers Konversations-Lexikon, 7th ed., vol. 6, 1890Institutions that are funded by the state and are dedicated to the geological exploration of the respective countries. They are responsible for monitoring all earthworks related to geology, drilling, and the preparation of geological maps, especially those important for mining, agriculture, and forestry. The first example was set in England in 1835 with the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom and the associated Mining Record Office, Government School of Mines and Museum of Practical Geology. The maps produced there are on a scale of 1:21120. Since then, similar institutions have been established in all major countries. In 1873 in Prussia (merged with the Mining Academy, founded in 1860 in Berlin, in 1875). Today, this institution is one of the most impressive of its kind. Its task is to: 1) produce a specialized geological map of Prussia and the Thuringian Staaten based on the so-called General Staff planetable sheets (scale 1:25000). So far, 40 deliveries of the same have appeared; 2) to publish scientific papers on the geological conditions of the country and 3) to establish a geological state museum. Furthermore, there are geological state museums in Saxony, Alsace-Lorraine and Baden. In Württemberg, a specialized geological map (scale: 1:50000) is published by the State Statistical Office, which is complete except for a few sheets, in Hesse-Darmstadt by the Mittelrheinischer Geologenverein and the Geological State Office, which was established in 1885. In Bavaria, the Geognostische Bureau (founded in 1869) publishes a geological map and associated publications (scale 1: 100000). Since 1849, Austria has had the 'Geologische Reichsanstalt' in Vienna, which publishes 'Verhandlungen', 'Abhandlungen' and a 'Jahrbuch'. The mapping is carried out at various scales in the individual countries: 1:28,000, 1:1,440,000, and 1:2,880,000. In addition, a large number of special maps have been provided for the individual regions. Since 1869, there has been an independent Geological Survey in Pest for the Hungarian lands. In France, the Carte geologique de la France (scale: 1:500,000) is available in a completed form, as well as individual geological special maps for departments. Work has been in progress since 1867 on the Carte geologique detaillde based on the General Staff maps, which is scheduled for completion in 1890. Belgium currently lacks a map that is up to date. In government circles, a revision of the older maps (1:160000 and 1:833000) is being discussed. The Netherlands is currently working on a geological map based on the Prussian model. In Portugal, the Comissão Geológica, and in Spain, the Comisión del Mapa Geológica d'Espagna, are working on geological maps (scales: 1:1,000,000 and 1:2,000,000). In Italy, a Comitato Geologico has been producing geological maps since 1861. In Switzerland, a commission is working on the Carte géologique de la Suisse (1:380000). In Sweden, the Sveriges geologisca undersökning has existed since 1858 and publishes a map (1:50000). A geological map also exists for Norway (1:200000). In Russia, such an institution does not yet exist; in North America, the individual states have such institutes, and a joint institute for North America is being established in Washington. In Japan, there has been a Geological Survey since 1876.vitreousPierers Konversations-Lexikon, 7th ed., vol. 6, 1890(hyaline), the state of minerals or rocks in which no individual parts can be distinguished with the naked eye. In the past, such minerals were thought to be completely homogeneous, but this cannot be maintained before microscopic examination. In many specimens previously thought to be completely homogeneous, small crystals (microlites) have been detected. Even rocks that look completely homogeneous, such as obsidian, pitchstone, perlite, basalt, melaphyre, and diabase, are full of such microlites. Most commonly, feldspar, hornblende, augite and apatite occur as micro-liths. These inclusions are hair-shaped (trichites), needle-shaped, spiky, club-shaped, star-shaped, loop-shaped, spiral-shaped, or like a string of pearls. Sometimes these inclusions are arranged in the form of wavy lines (micro-fluctuation structure), from which it can be seen that the glassy mass, which had been formed by solidification, after it had already enclosed the micro-liths, was still in a viscous state, so that it was in a kind of flowing-about-in-a-mess motion. The glassy mass in which the microliths are embedded is also called glass base. Cf. also the article devitrification.GoldPierer's Conversational Encyclopedia, 7th ed., vol. 6, 1890Czech zlato, n; Danish guld, n; English gold; French or, m; Greek xovo&c, m; Dutch goud, n; Italian oro, m; Latin aurum, n; Swedish guld, n; Spanish oro, m; Hungarian arany.G. (Aurum), Au, atomic weight 196.6, specific weight on average 19.3 (molten 19.3, powdered up to 19.7). Content: Properties; Mineralogy; Occurrence; Extraction; Use; Historical and statistical data; Literature. - Properties. Gold is a pure yellow, highly lustrous metal; the naturally occurring form sometimes regular octahedrons. The most ductile of all metals, it can be processed into wires, of which 150m weigh 0.6g, and foils up to 0.0001 mm thick. Depending on their thickness, such foils are transparent with a blue or green color. The G coatings, which are nevertheless completely cohesive, are much thinner and, as in the illustration of the G-tresses, are obtained by plating and drawing gilded silver. It only melts at 1240° to form a light green liquid, contracts strongly when cooling and therefore cannot be cast in molds. In air (even that containing hydrogen sulfide), in water, in contact with alkalis and acids, gold remains unchanged at all temperatures, only aqua regia and all liquids containing free chlorine dissolve it. In chemical terms, silver is characterized by its reluctance to form compounds with other elements (especially with oxygen), as well as by the easy decomposability of its compounds; it only combines easily and directly with chlorine and bromine. It is precipitated from its solutions by most other metals and by reducing substances such as iron vitriol and oxalic acid as a brown, dull powder or in shiny crystal flakes. See also the article gold samples.Mineralogical. Gold is a mineral from the group of elements. It crystallizes tesserally (octahedron, hexahedron, rhombic dodecahedron, icositetrahedron and combinations); the crystals are often indistinct and distorted, the surfaces uneven; often twinned with one octahedral surface as the twinning plane; occurs in sheet, plate, tree, moss, wire, hair and knitted forms. Fracture jagged; hardness 2.5-3; ductile and malleable; brass-yellow, food-yellow (the richer in silver, the lighter the color); chemical composition: elemental gold, with smaller or larger amounts of silver, also mixed with small quantities of copper, iron [etc.]; melts easily in a blowtorch.Occurrence. Solid gold almost always occurs together with quartz (gold quartz, mountain gold), which is then found either in deposits or veins in crystalline schists. Usually pyrite or limonite also occurs as a companion. In primary deposits, G. quartz is found in crystalline slates, sometimes also in granite, e.g. in North America (Georgia, Carolina, Virginia), Brazil, at Radhausberge near Gastein. As a companion to trachyte and porphyry rocks and other igneous rocks, quartz appears near Verespatak in Transylvania, in Peru, Mexico and Australia; near Nagyäg in Hungary and in California, quartz appears together with tellurium; it occurs with silver ores near Schemnitz and Kremnitz. In secondary deposits, gold is found as panned gold, in gold placers and in the sands of many rivers: in the Urals and Altai, Lapland, Brazil, Mexico, Peru, Guiana, California, Oregon, Victoria Land (in Australia), St. Domingo, Borneo, on the coasts of Africa, in the rivers: Danube, Rhine, Isar, Edder, Schwarza, Göltzsch, Stringis. The G ores are of little importance. Schrifterz (Sylvanit) contains 26.2% G., along with 59.5 tellurium and 14.3 silver, the former often replaced by antimony, the latter by copper or lead. A variety of this is white tellurium (yellow ore) with 28% G. Leaf tellurium (Nagyagit, leaf ore) contains 9% G. Rarely does the G. occur in larger lumps (G-klumpen). Examples are: a piece of G-ore at Miask, which weighs 36.02 kg and was found in 1842; in 1857, a 70 cm long and 25 cm wide lump of 50 kg was found in Australia and exhibited in the Crystal Palace of exhibited in the Crystal Palace of Sydenham (London); it was valued at 8000 pounds sterling. In addition, G pieces of 92 and 105 kg have been found in Australia and 70 kg in California.Depending on the type of occurrence, gold is extracted either by purely mechanical means (washing and slurrying) or by chemical means (melting of gold-bearing gravel, blende, copper ore, lead ore or by extraction with chlorine water, amalgamation [etc.]) or by a combination of mechanical and chemical processes (washing and amalgamation, weathering and washing, roasting and amalgamation). Ores from which gold can only be obtained by chemical processes are either gold-bearing dry ores or gold-bearing sulfur-bearing ores, depending on whether the gold is bound in earthy (i.e. oxidic) substances or sulfur. The methods of gold extraction are: for extraction from gold sand:washing (either in bowls, as in America, or in gourd skins, as in Africa, or by means of machines, as in Russia, California, Australia). Washing is an imperfect process because both the solid mercury particles bound to clay and the very fine ones that are carried away by the water are lost.Leaching and amalgamating: The washed G-sand is stirred in bowls (or mortars) with mercury, the G-amalgam formed by this is pressed through leather and then annealed, leaving G. This method is used particularly in Hungary, Transylvania, Croatia, Russia, Portugal, Brazil and Tibet.Melting of iron-bearing galenic sand on pig iron and separation of the galenic by sulfuric acid.Extraction from gold-bearing gravels:At Marmato in America, gravel is ground, concentrated by washing, exposed to weathering and then all components except G. are made to disappear by renewed washing. Another method consists of combining grinding and amalgamation. The former can take place in mills or in barrels. The latter is less favorable because the deaf rock prevents the action of mercury on the G. The methods are different: In Piedmont, the gravels are ground separately and then with water and mercury on mills; the amalgam thus obtained is pressed through leather and annealed in iron retorts. In Transylvania, the ores are washed in hand troughs and blast furnaces and then left to amalgamate in mortars. In Schmölnitz, the so-called mercury column is used for ores that only contain mercury in a very finely distributed form. By means of the same, larger quantities of ore can be processed at the same time. If the mercury occurs with selenium, tellurium or arsenopyrite, the ores must first be roasted. In Salzburg, the gravel is washed and roasted, then washed again (on mills), mixed with table salt, then pressed through chamois leather and finally annealed in a bell apparatus. From ores that contain the G. in a finely divided state and allow themselves to be completely oxidized during roasting, the G. is obtained by means of chlorinated water and precipitation from the chlorinated gold solution using Plattner's method. Plattner originally simply used chlorinated water. Lange tried to use chlorinated lime, hydrochloric acid and also gaseous chlorine.The von Richter improved Plattner method is the following: A layer of quartz pieces is placed in a charred wooden barrel, on the bottom of which is a charred wooden cross and on it a perforated charred wooden disc. The roasted ore is then placed on top of this, after which the whole thing is covered with a perforated wooden disc and the chlorinated water is spread over the ore. From the solution, the gold is precipitated by iron vitriol, arsenic chlorure, copper or iron, or is precipitated by means of hydrogen sulfide and driven off with lead. This method is by far the most common. From gold-bearing copper, lead and nickel [etc.] ores, the gold is obtained by roasting and then by amalgamation or chlorination. It can also be accumulated by concentration melting in a regular and then treated with lead or with zinc. These combine with the gold and it can be obtained from this by beating off or distillation. Gold-bearing black copper is now usually processed in such a way that the alloy is granulated (crushed) and the granules are dissolved using concentrated sulfuric acid. The gold remains undissolved and can be driven off by lead.The gold obtained is still more or less mixed with silver and must be separated from it. Various methods are used for this. The separation can be done by wet or dry methods. The dry method only allows an imperfect separation and is therefore rarely used now. The wet method consists of the separation using nitric acid (quartation). This is laborious, expensive and is now almost universally abandoned. Or the separation using sulfuric acid (refining), which is now almost the only method used. This is based on the insolubility of the silver in concentrated sulfuric acid and the solubility of silver in it. The silver alloy is granulated (crushed) and the granules are dissolved in vessels made of platinum, glass, cast iron or porcelain using concentrated sulfuric acid; this yields silver, sulfuric acid silver (silver vitriol) and sulfurous acid. Silver vitriol is precipitated out by copper and silver; the sulfurous acid escapes through the vent and is absorbed by lime slurry, and the remaining silver vitriol is boiled down several more times with sulfuric acid and melted with sodium or potassium bisulfate to completely remove the silver.In order to obtain chemically pure silver, it is dissolved in aqua regia, the solution is evaporated to dryness and the silver is precipitated from it using iron vitriol. If carbonic potash and crystallized oxalic acid are added to a concentrated silver chloride solution and the solution is quickly heated to boiling, silver chloride is obtained in the form of a yellow sponge. In trade, a distinction is made between pale, bright yellow and very pure (virgin) G. G-sand is G. in grains, G-bars in bars, G-dust in very fine particles. G. is never used pure, but in alloys with copper or silver.Use. The alchemists attributed healing properties to gold and saw in it a means to cure diseases and prolong life. Now it is used as jewelry (see goldsmithing), for dental fillings and for coating pills; by far the most important use, however, is as a means of payment.History and statistics. Gold was known in the most ancient times. It is mentioned in the Book of Genesis; Abraham sent Rebekah, who was courting Isaac, golden bracelets. A passage in the Book of Job already suggests that gold was smelted from gold-bearing rock. In India, gold seems to have been known in the most ancient times. The main center of gold production in ancient times was Egypt. The legend of King Midas also points to significant gold wealth in Asia Minor. The Lydians are said to have been the first to mint gold coins. The Greeks also knew gold very early on and used it for vessels, statues [etc.], in 'Rome, gold coins were minted since 207 BC. In the Middle Ages, gold mining in Bohemia, Hungary and Transylvania played an important role. From the 14th to the 18th century, alchemists sought to produce gold from other metals. The discovery of America opened up new sources of gold for Europe, but these were initially of little importance, since in the first 3 decades after the discovery hardly 100,000 marks of gold came to Europe. Then, however, the import increased rapidly and resulted in an enormous increase in almost all prices. In 1521, the production of silver in Mexico amounted to 79 million piastres; Richthofen estimates the amount of silver produced in 1690-1852 at 12,691,916,200 piastres. The Brazilian g-type was discovered in 1590 by Alfonso Sardicha. Incidentally, production has decreased significantly during this century. In Russia, g-production has only been of importance since 1743 (discovery of the g-bearing of Yekaterinenburg). In 1745, other significant g-sites were found in the Urals. Since 1842, a large output of gold has also been recorded in Siberia. There are also significant deposits in Austria-Hungary and outside Europe in Borneo and in the interior of Africa. Since 1848, the great gold deposits of California have been opened up by Marshall; gold deposits have also been discovered in other states in North America (in British Columbia in 1856). Finally, in 1851, Hangreaves discovered rich gold deposits in Australia, which were followed by other discoveries in that part of the world. The discovery of a gold deposit in a foreign part of the world usually attracted a large number of profit-seeking people, most of whom experienced only disappointment. Only a few acquired large quantities of gold, with which they then increased the prices of goods on the world market. This resulted in an increase in production, the establishment of new companies, etc., which led to a large supply of goods for which there was no corresponding demand. This caused crises; people who had only recently become rich had to sell their goods at low prices and went bankrupt. This happened repeatedly. Because when the cheap supply was used up, new demand arose and prices rose again. We are summarizing the production of gold here according to Clarence King (Production of the precious metal 1882), according to which the annual production of gold in the various countries of the world in dollars is as follows:United States 33,379,663 dollars; Mexico 989,161; British Columbia 910,804; Africa 1,993,800; Argentine Republic 781,546; Colombia 4,000,000; the rest of South America 1,933,800; Australia 2,901,822,33; Austria 1,062,031; Germany 205 361; Italy 723,750; Russia 26,584 ,000; Sweden 1,994; Japan 46,654,800; which amounts to a total annual production of gold on Earth of 100,756,306 dollars.Literature: Historical: King, Nat. history of precious stones and metals (New York 1870); Mercantile and Monetary Policy in Soetbeer (supplement to Petermann's geograph. Mitteilungen 57); the same, Kritik der bisherigen Schätzungen der Edelmetallproduktion (Preuß. Jahrbücher, vol. 41); Säß, Die Zukunft des Geldes (Vienna 1877); L. Simonin, L'or et l'argent (Paris 1877, popular-technological); Vom Rath, über das Geld (Berlin 1879).HammerschmidtPierer's Conversational Encyclopedia, 7th ed., vol. 7, 1890Karl, called Abdullah Bei, mineralogist, born 1800 Vienna, 1 30/8 1874 Asia Minor; first devoted himself to law, became editor of the “Landwirtschaftl. Zeitung” and then studied medicine. In 1848 he had to flee because of his participation in the revolution, joined the Hungarian Army and was, with many fellow campaigners, driven out of Transylvania, where he fought under Bem, into Turkish territory. H. now became a teacher of medicine in Constantinople; but he also had to leave this post at the instigation of the Austrian government. He settled in Damascus as a doctor, served as a Turkish military doctor during the Crimean War and was sent to the Vienna World's Fair in 1873 as a commissioner for Turkey. From that time on, he worked as a teacher of mineralogy and zoology in Constantinople, where he founded a natural history museum. H. provided important work for the knowledge of the geological conditions of the Balkans.HauerPierer's Conversational Encyclopedia, 7th ed., vol. 7, 1890Franz, Ritter v., geologist and paleontologist, born born on January 30, 1822 in Vienna, studied at the Mining Academy in Schemnitz, became an assistant at the Mining Museum in Vienna in 1846, the first mining councilor at the Geological Institute in 1849, and director of the same in 1866; in 1886, he also became director of the Natural History Court Museum, whose “Annals” he has been editing since 1886. He published his first major work while still an assistant: “Die Kephalopoden des Salzkammerguts” (Vienna 1846). In addition to numerous writings in the yearbooks of the Imperial Institute and the Academy, he also published: “Geologische Übersicht des Bergbaus der österreichischen Monarchie” (ibid. 1855); “Geology of Transylvania” (ibid. 1863, with Stache); “Die Bodenbeschaffenheit der österreichischen Monarchie” (ibid. 1875; 2nd ed. 1878) as well as geological maps of Transylvania (1866) and Austria-Hungary (4th ed. 1884).HaushoferPierers Konversations-Lexikon, 7th ed., vol. 7, 18902) Karl H., mineralogist, born 28 April 1839 in Munich, studied mineralogy in Munich from 1857 to 1863, then mining in Prague and Freiberg, habilitated in Munich in 1865 as a mineralogist, and became an associate professor at the Technische Hochschule in 1868, and in 1880 a full professor of mineralogy and metallurgy. His work “On Asterism and Etching Figures on Calcite” (Munich 1846) was fundamental to a new direction in crystal physics. In addition, H. wrote: “On the Constitution of Natural Silicates” (Brunswick 1874); “Franz v. Kobell” (Munich 1884); “Microscopic Reactions” (Brunswick 1885). He also edited the “Journal of the German Alpine Club” and published a series of geological blackboards for teaching.