The History of the Middle Ages

GA 51 — 28 December 1904, Berlin

IX. The Emergence of Cities

We have seen how life in the Middle Ages developed in the cities.

We have come to the point where public life takes place mainly in the cities. Originally, the reason for settling in cities was the oppression of the rural population and the spread of trade.

We have seen how those who fled their oppressors or devoted themselves to trade settled either in a bishopric or in another center of medieval power. At first, the part of the population that lived in the cities was not in a comfortable position; they had to pay taxes to their former landlords and supply them with weapons, clothing, and so on. Those who had moved to the cities and devoted themselves to trade, as well as those who were royal, episcopal, or other officials, initially formed the truly free privileged classes. But more and more, the privileges of the officials and merchants who formed the patriciate were taken away from the privileged by those who lived in oppression. On the Rhine in southern Germany, this equality was achieved in the 13th and 14th centuries. Kings and emperors reckoned with this.

In the past, the itinerant kings had held court here and there, but now they settled in the cities. The rulers had to reckon with the cities, which they found to be a source of their own power. Therefore, certain rights were transferred to the cities, such as jurisdiction, the right to mint coins, and so on. In this way, their power grew more and more. A democratic element was now forming in Germany. In the past, the landed nobility, the feudal nobility of the time, had left their mark on society. Now, however, something new had emerged. Privileges were increasingly being abolished in the cities. Instead of making general observations, let us turn to specific examples. Cologne had long been an important trading city and the seat of a powerful clergy; cities were also becoming a force in the intellectual sphere. There, the subordinate class soon acquired equal rights with the patriciate, a kind of constitution, the oath book, which recorded the rights of each individual. The guilds, of which there were twenty-two in Cologne, had joined together; before the 14th century, they too were dependent on the patricians. Now, in 1321, they gained equal rights.

The city council was not only composed of patricians, but the members of the guilds also had equal voting rights. In order to make this council as democratic as possible, its members were to be elected for only six months at a time and were then ineligible for three years. With the implementation of the democratic principle, the interest of individual citizens in the flourishing of the cities also grew. Until the 12th century, such cities were little more than dirty villages with thatched houses. But in just a few years, we see them growing in a remarkable way. Every man is now a citizen, and with the participation of the individual, the prestige and beauty of the city grows.

What the cities declared also had a decisive influence on high politics as a whole. What could cities such as Hamburg, Lübeck, and Cologne be interested in politically, as kings and dukes had been in the past? When the cities began to engage in politics, they did so in an urban manner. Wide areas allied themselves to protect their urban interests. Such powerful city alliances first formed in northern Germany, and later the cities of northern Italy formed similar alliances. German cities also gained significant influence abroad; in Bergen and London, they had their powerful guild houses.

As the princes had to decide to grant the cities the right to pursue such policies, the cities gradually became the center of a new culture. Admittedly, this was a material culture, but it led to the settlement of large areas. New cultural centers were formed, in which lively trade with the northern countries, especially Russia, flourished; the legendary Vineta was one such trading center. We see how trade policy developed, powerful trade routes emerged along the Rhine, through northern and central Germany, with important trading cities such as Magdeburg, Hildesheim, Erfurt, Breslau, and so on. These city alliances gave rise to what is known as the Hanseatic League. Over time, it became necessary to pursue not only trade policy but also war policy. Enemies lurked in the background, knights and dukes who watched the development of the cities with envy. The cities had to surround themselves with walls and defend themselves against their enemies. Thus, they became increasingly powerful cultural centers, as well as centers of intellectual life. Whatever intellectual life felt at that time converged in the cities. Art also flourished in medieval cities under the influence of the free bourgeoisie. In Venice, the Hall of the Clothmakers was painted by Tizian.

A new form of warfare also emerged. The use of gunpowder, which had already been known in the Orient but was only now being discovered in Europe, gave rise to a new, democratic form of combat as opposed to the individual combat of armored knights. The use of gunpowder continued to develop. At first, it was crude blunderbusses and mortars, but soon more sophisticated weapons were invented, particularly by Kaspar Zöllner in Vienna.

What developed in the cities in connection with the spirit of church life is of particular importance for cultural progress. We have seen how the highest ecstasy of religious fervor manifested itself in the Crusades. We have seen how German mysticism flourished, particularly on the Rhine, and how the brothers of the common life cultivated a deep piety quite independent of Rome. Two different trends of the time now confront us: on the one hand, the citizen is concerned with improving his material life; on the other hand, we see an inward-looking spiritual life. In the early Middle Ages, material and spiritual life were closely intertwined; the farmer believed that the flourishing of his crops and his religious feelings were promoted and blessed by the Church. Now that personal competence came to the fore, these directions split.

The peculiar architectural style of the Middle Ages, mistakenly called Gothic, came from southern France, originating in areas where pious heretics such as the Cathars and Waldensians lived, who sought to deepen their inner lives and break with the lavish lifestyle of the bishops and clergy. A peculiar spiritual life spread from there; German mysticism was strongly influenced by it.

The profound influence this attitude had on the external appearance of these churches is evident from the fact that all these Gothic cathedrals were adorned with mystical decorations in the form of wonderful stained glass windows. This art, which was completely lost in the 17th century, was not artistic allegory, but the symbols painted there really exerted a mystical influence on the crowd when the sunshine shone through them into the dim, high churches. This style of construction was closely conditioned by the conditions of medieval cities; the town hall and the guild house were also Gothic. The city, which was surrounded by walls, was dependent on expanding within these walls, and the Romanesque architectural style was not sufficient for this. This led to the creation of the soaring Gothic churches, which were also an expression of the inwardness of life at that time; the dances of death that often adorn them brought home the transience of all earthly things.

In their concern for the cleanliness and beauty of their city, the citizens found an elegant way to preserve their names in the memory of their fellow citizens. In particular, beautiful fountains were erected everywhere. We see that something emerged at that time which took on special significance in the Middle Ages: public baths, which were found in every city. In the later Middle Ages, these baths gave rise to moral excesses and were therefore eradicated by Protestantism. But this civic spirit went even further, intervening in public life by creating charitable institutions that can still be considered models today. And these charitable institutions were urgently needed, because in the 14th century, Europe was ravaged by severe plagues, famines, leprosy, the plague, or, as it was called at the time, “the Black Death.” But medieval man knew how to deal with this. Infirmaries, hospitals, and almshouses sprang up everywhere, and strangers were also cared for in so-called “Elendsherbergen” (almshouses). At that time, ‘Elend’ (misery) was synonymous with “foreign,” and only later did it take on a different meaning.

Alongside these bright sides of medieval life, there were of course also some dark ones. Above all, there was the harsh treatment of all those who did not belong to a fixed community. They were outcasts, something the cities did not provide for. Anyone who did not belong to a guild had to suffer poor treatment. This was especially true for “traveling people.” The name “dishonest people” originated at that time, a terrible label for traveling people. A wide variety of professions were considered dishonest people, including actors, jugglers, shepherds, and so on. They were denied access to the guilds and were not allowed to show themselves anywhere without running the risk of being tortured. The Jews suffered the same fate. The prejudice against them is not very old. In the early Middle Ages, we find many Jews recognized as scholars. In later times, they met the financial needs of princes and knights. Due to the peculiar circumstances of the Middle Ages, they attained the position of moneylenders, which was somewhere between trade and usury and earned them hatred. However, the kings' financial difficulties repeatedly granted them certain rights; this activity earned them the strange name of royal chamber servants. Another dark side was the judicial system, which was necessarily based on medieval criminal law. In earlier times, justice was really related to revenge; either damage had to be repaired, or revenge had to be taken. The concept of punishment did not exist; it only emerged at this time. Roman legal concepts became established. Judicial power was a valuable privilege of a city, and citizens were proud not only of their churches and walls, but also of their high court. Often, the harshest penalties were imposed for the slightest causes.

Thus, medieval life in the 15th and 16th centuries was influenced by urban life. Another trend ran parallel to this. What we understand today as high politics was connected with this other trend. This is the movement known as the heretics or Cathars. You can gauge the extent to which this movement grew when you consider the fact that in 13th-century Italy there were more heretics than orthodox believers.

This was also the real conflict that led to the Crusades. When the decision to launch them was made at the Church Council of Clermont in 1095, it was not only rabble, no, it was also decent people who set out in disorderly crowds under Peter of Amiens and the knight Walter of Habenichts on their way to the Promised Land. It was a papal undertaking, not merely the result of enthusiasm. It was a matter of the papal influence being threatened by heretics. The pope's aim was to create an outlet for the heretics, which is what actually happened.

In the first real crusade, it was mostly heretics who set out. This is also evident from the person of the leader. Godfrey of Bouillon was decidedly anti-papal in his views, as his past life shows. For when, at the instigation of Pope Gregory, a rival king was set up against Henry IV in the person of Duke Rudolf of Swabia, Godfrey of Bouillon fought on the side of Emperor Henry and killed Rudolf of Swabia. One must understand what was at stake for him, but which did not come to fruition: to establish an anti-Rome in Jerusalem. That is why he called himself only “Protector of the Holy Sepulchre” and sought, in unassuming modesty, to raise the banner of anti-Roman Christianity in Jerusalem. After the Crusades, the Ghibelline party emerged from the representatives of such views; opposed to them, on the side of the Pope, were the Guelphs.

We see the same phenomena when we look at the Second Crusade, which Emperor Conrad III undertook in 1147 at the instigation of Bernard of Clairvaux. These crusades had no further significance in themselves; they merely showed what spirit was blowing through the world. Barbarossa, who undertook five Roman campaigns against the Pope and the northern Italian cities that sided with the Pope in order to subdue them, had to grant them independence in the Peace of Constance after failing to capture their fortress of Alessandria.

The German papal party consisted mainly of the princely families who were remnants of the old nobility. Henry the Proud and his son Henry the Lion fought for the old ducal power against imperial authority. Usually, these rebellious princes were bound to the imperial power through marriage to an imperial daughter. By enfeoffing relatives of the emperor with defunct duchies, such shifts in the balance of power were repeatedly brought about.

Emperor Frederick Barbarossa undertook the Third Crusade, which also did not lead to any real success, but which became important because of the Kyffhäuser legend associated with it. Anyone who can read legends knows that this is one of the most important ones. It did not spring from the folk-soul of the people, as is usually claimed, for it was composed by an individual and then spread among the people, as is also the case with folk songs, which professors claim originate directly from the people and not from the minds of individuals. The legend originated from the mind of a person who understood how to use symbols that had a deep meaning, such as the cave in Kyffhäuser, the ravens, and so on. It is one of those legends that can be found all over the world, proof that something similar exists everywhere.

The Barbarossa legend is a very important legend in cultural history. — Rome was the advocate in the Church of what resulted from the external trappings imposed on the Germanic spirit in connection with Christianity. — The emperor was to be hidden in a cave. Since ancient times, caves had been secret places of worship. Thus, the cult of Mithras was generally practiced in caves. In this worship, Mithras was depicted on the bull, the symbol of the lower animal nature that was overcome by Mithras, the predecessor of Christ. In the Kyffhäuser legend, the emperor hidden in the rock grotto became the advocate of what in the German soul turned against Rome and its influence. How much is contained in this legend! A pure Christianity, which was longed for by many at that time, was to emerge from obscurity when the time came.

Under the Staufen Emperor Frederick II, the Mongol invasion devastated Europe. I do not want to give you a history of the Hohenstaufen dynasty here, but only to point out what developed from the Crusades: expanded trade relations, a revival of the sciences and arts through contact with the Orient. The crusaders brought home with them the new experiences and goods they had acquired.

It was also at this time that the two great monastic orders arose which were to become particularly important for spiritual life: the Dominicans and the Franciscans. The Dominicans represented the spiritual direction known as realism, while the Franciscans leaned toward nominalism. The Holy Land also saw the founding of spiritual orders of knights; the Order of St. John was initially founded to care for the sick.

The second order of knights, the Knights Templar, emerged from a mood similar to that which I have described to you as that of Godfrey of Bouillon. Its real goals were kept secret, but through intimate agitators, the order soon became very powerful. An anti-Roman principle prevailed within it, as was also evident among the Dominicans, who often found themselves in complete opposition to Rome; for example, they vehemently opposed the Pope on the dogma of the Immaculate Conception. The Knights Templar sought to purify Christianity. Referring to John the Baptist, they advocated an ascetic tendency. Their religious practices were so hostile to the church, due to their opposition to Roman secularization, that it is still not appropriate to speak about them publicly today. The order had become very inconvenient for the clergy and the princes due to its power. It suffered severe persecution and was destroyed after its last Grand Master, Jacques de Molay, and a number of his brothers were martyred in 1314.

The “German Order of Knights” also had similar origins. Together with the Order of the Brothers of the Sword, which joined it, it made it its special task to convert the areas of Europe that were still pagan, especially in the east, from its headquarters in Marienburg. Contemporary reports paint a strange picture of the inhabitants of the areas that today form the provinces of East and West Prussia. Albert of Bremen describes the ancient Prussians as complete pagans. Among this people, whose Germanic or Slavic origins are unclear, the ancient pagan customs of eating horse meat and drinking horse blood were found. The chronicler describes them as pagan and cruel people.

Before coming into contact with the German knights, the Brothers of the Sword had strived especially for worldly power.

One can only construct the development. Although the cities had formed, part of the ducal power and robber baronry remained. It was not enthusiasm for Christianity, but mere selfishness that caused the remnants of the feudal nobility to band together in these two German orders of knights. In these regions, the cities had no significant influence. The other two Christian orders were associations of those who had no connection with Rome. If one examines the historical sources, one will often find alliances between them and the cities.

Alongside these two currents of urban development and deeper religious life, we see that imperial power lost all significance. Between 1254 and 1273, there was no bearer of imperial power in Germany; the imperial dignity was temporarily sold to foreign princes, one of whom, Richard of Cornwall, came to Germany only twice, while the second, Alfonso of Castile, never set foot there at all.

When a proper imperial election was finally held again, the aim was not to establish some kind of imperial central power or to try once more to create imperial power, but rather the desire to bring order to the robber barons was decisive.

So Count Rudolf of Habsburg was elected. If one were to ask what he and his successors did for the empire, it would be difficult to say, because they were not active in public affairs. They were busy establishing their domestic power. After the death of Duke Henry Jasomirgott, Rudolf of Habsburg granted Lower Austria to his son, thereby establishing the Habsburg power base. His successors sought to increase this power through conquests and, in particular, through marriage contracts, and no longer concerned themselves with anything related to the general interest.

You can see what was really important for further development: the events that led to the medieval conditions that ultimately resulted in the great discoveries and inventions at the end of the Middle Ages. We see cities with a powerfully emerging but secularized culture; in the church we see divorce, schism, separation; out of this current emerges the final act of the medieval drama, we see the twilight of the Middle Ages, the dawn of a new era.