Greco-Christian stream·Corpus Aristotelicum (Complete Works of Aristotle)·On Respiration

Source context

Theme

physiological function of breath in relation to vital heat and life-maintenance

Steiner

not engaged in the GA corpus

Cross-tradition

• Vedantic / Yogic tradition (pranayama doctrine)Cross-tradition congruence appears in the Upanishadic treatment of prana as the breath-force sustaining inner heat (tapas), structurally parallel to Aristotle's account of pneuma-cooled vital warmth as the condition for continued life.
• Galenic / Hippocratic medicineCross-tradition congruence appears in the Galenic doctrine that respiration serves to temper innate heat in the heart, a direct reception of the framework Aristotle elaborates in this text.

On Respiration

Περὶ Ἀναπνοῆς · De Respiratione · biology

[470b.6] We must proceed—and it will require further application on our part—to give an account of the way and manner in which this refrigeration occurs. A few of the previous physical philosophers have spoken of respiration. The reason, however, why it exists in animals they have either not declared or, when they have, their statements are not correct and show a comparative lack of acquaintance with the facts. Moreover they assert that all animals respire—which is untrue. Hence these points must τὸ first claim our attention, in order that we may not be thought to make unsubstantiated charges against authors no longer alive. First then, it is evident that all animals with lungs breathe, but in some cases breathing animals have a bloodless and spongy lung, and then there is less need for respiration. These animals can remain under water for a time, which relatively to their bodily strength, is considerable. All Oviparous animals, e.g. the frog-tribe, have a spongy lung. Also hemydes and tortoises can remain for a long time im-

[470b.20] mersed in water; for their lung, containing little blood, has not much heat. Hence, when once it is inflated, it itself. by means of its motion, produces a cooling effect and enables the animal to remain immersed for a long time. Suffocation, however, always ensues if the animal is forced to hold its breath for too long a time, for none of this class take in water in the way fishes do. On the other hand. animals which

[470b.25] have the lung charged with blood have greater need of - 30 471: ἃ oy 10 _ respiration on account of the amount of their heat, while none at all of the others which do not possess lungs, breathe. CHAPTER VIII (ID) Democritus of Abdera and certain others who have treated of respiration, while saying nothing definite about the lungless animals, nevertheless seem to speak as if all breathed. But Anaxagoras and Diogenes both maintain that all breathe, and state the manner in which fishes and oysters respire. Anaxagoras says that when fishes discharge water through their gills, air is formed in the mouth, for there can be no vacuum, and that it is by drawing in this that they respire. Diogenes’ statement is that, when they discharge water through their gills, they suck the air out of the water surrounding the mouth by means of the vacuum formed in the mouth, for he believes there is air in the water. But these theories are untenable. Firstly, they state only what is the common element in both operations and so leave out the half of the matter. For what goes by the name of respiration consists, on the one hand, of inhalation, and, on the other, of the exhalation of breath; but, about the latter they say nothing, nor do they describe how such animals emit their breath. Indeed, explanation is for them impossible for, when the creatures respire, they must discharge their breath by the same passage as that by which they draw it in, and this must happen in alternation. Hence, as a result, they must take the water into their mouth at the same time as they breathe out. But the air and the water must meet and obstruct each other. Further, when they discharge the water they must emit their breath by the mouth or the gills, and the result will be that they will breathe in and breathe out at the same time, for it is at that moment that respiration is said to occur. But it is impossible that they should do both at the same time. Hence, if respiring creatures must both exhale and inhale the air, and if none of these animals can breathe out, evidently none can respire at all. 471: ἃ CHAPTER ΙΧ (III) Further, the assertion that they draw in air out of the 20 mouth or out of the water by means of the mouth is an impossibility, for, not having a lung, they have no windpipe ; rather the stomach is closely juxtaposed to the mouth, so that they must do the sucking with the stomach. But in that case the other animals would do so also, which is not the truth ; and the water-animals also would be seen to do it when out of the water, whereas quite evidently they do not. 25 Further, in all animals that respire and draw breath there is to be observed a certain motion in the part of the body which draws in the air, but in the fishes this does not occur. Fishes do not appear to move any of the parts in the region of the stomach, except the gills alone, and these move both

[470b.30] when they are in the water and when they are thrown on to

[471b.1] land and gasp. Moreover, always when respiring animals are killed by being suffocated in water, bubbles are formed of the air which is forcibly discharged, as happens, e.g. when one forces a tortoise or a frog or any other animal of a similar class to stay beneath water. But with fishes this result never occurs, in whatsoever way we try to obtain it, since they do

[471b.5] not contain air drawn from an external source. Again, the manner of respiration said to exist in them might occur in the case of men also when they are under water. For if fishes draw in air out of the surrounding water by means of their mouth why should not men too and other animals do so also; they should also, in the same way as fishes, draw in air out of the mouth.’ If in the former case it were possible, so also should it be in the latter. But, since in the one it is not so, neither does it occur in the other. Furthermore, why do fishes, if they respire, die in the air and gasp (as can be seen) as in suffocation? It is not want of food * that pro- duces this effect upon them, and the reason given by Diogenes is foolish, for he says that in air they take in too much air and hence die, but in the water they take in a moderate amount. But that should be a possible occurrence with land = ie) oo 1 Anaxagoras’s theory. 2 If the air is regarded as nutriment. 20 to 472 ἃ animals also; as facts are, however, no land animal seems to be suffocated by excessive respiration. Again, if all animals breathe, insects must do so also. But many of them seem to live though divided not merely into two, but into several parts, e.g. the class called Scolopendra. But how can they, when thus divided, breathe, and what is the organ they employ ? The main reason why these writers have not given a good account of these facts is that they have no acquaint- ance with the internal organs, and that they did not accept the doctrine that there is a final cause for whatever Nature does. If they had asked for what purpose respiration exists in animals, and had considered this with reference to the organs, e.g. the gills and the lungs, they would fae dis- covered the reason more speedily. CHAPTER X (IV) Democritus, however, does teach that in the breathing animals there is a certain result produced by respiration ; he asserts that it prevents the soul from being extruded from the body. Nevertheless, he by no means asserts that it is for this purpose that Nature so contrives it, for he, like the other physical philosophers, altogether fails to attain to any such explanation. His statement is that the soul and the hot element are identical, being the primary forms among the spherical particles. Hence, when these are being crushed together by the surrounding atmosphere thrusting them out, respiration, according to his account, comes in to succour them. For in the air there are many of those particles which he calls mind and soul. Hence, when we breathe and the air enters, these enter along with it, and by their action cancel the pressure, thus preventing the expulsion of the soul which resides in the animal. This explains why life and death are bound up with the taking in and letting out of the breath; for death occurs when the compression by the surrounding air gains the upper hand, and, the animal being unable to respire, the air from outside can no longer enter and counteract the compression. CHAPTER X (IV) 472 ἃ

[471b.15] Death is the departure of those forms owing to the expulsive pressure exerted by the surrounding air. Death, however, occurs not by haphazard but, when natural, owing to old age, and, when unnatural, to violence. But the reason for this and why all must die Democritus has by no means made clear. And yet, since evidently death occurs at one time of life and not at another, he should have said whether the cause is external or internal. Neither does - he assign the cause of the beginning of respiration, nor say whether it is internal or external. Indeed, it is not the case that the external mind superintends the reinforcement ; rather the origin of breathing and of the respiratory motion must be within: it is not due to pressure from around. It is absurd also that what surrounds should compress and at the same

[471b.25] time by entering dilate. This then is practically his theory, and how he puts it. But if we must consider that our previous account is true, and that respiration does not occur in every animal, we must deem that this explains death not universajly, but only in respiring animals. Yet neither is it a good account of these even, as may Clearly be seen from the facts and phenomena of which we all have experience. For in hot weather we grow warmer, and, having more need of respiration, we always breathe faster. But, when the air around is cold and contracts and solidifies the body, retardation of the breathing results. Yet this was just the time when the external air should enter :

[472b.1] and annul the expulsive movement, whereas it is the opposite that occurs. For when the breath is not let out and the heat accumulates too much then we need to respire, and to respire we must draw in the breath. When hot, people breathe rapidly, because they must do so in order to cool themselves, just ; when the theory of Democritus would make them add fire to fire. t 3 O ~ ee) J CHAPTER XI (V) The theory found in the 77maeus, of the passing round of the breath by pushing, by no means determines how, in the case of the animals other than land-animals, their heat is pre- served, and whether it is due to the same or a different cause. For if respiration occurs only in land-animals we should be

[472b.10] told what is the reason of that. Likewise, if it is found in others also, but in a different form, this form of respiration, if they all can breathe, must also be described. Further, the method of explaining involves a fiction. It is said that when the hot air issues from the mouth it pushes the surrounding air, which being carried on enters the very

[472b.15] place whence the internal warmth issued, through the inter- stices of the porous flesh ; and this reciprocal replacement is due to the fact that a vacuum cannot exist. But when it has become hot the air passes out again by the same route, and pushes back inwards through the mouth the air that had been discharged in a warm condition. It is said that it is this action which goes on continuously when the breath is taken in and let out. 20 ~=9 But according to this way of thinking it will follow that we breathe out before we breathe in. But the opposite is the case, as evidence shows, for though these two functions go on in alternation, yet the last act when life comes to a close is the letting out of the breath, and hence its admission must have been the beginning of the process. Once more, those who give this kind of explanation by no means state the final cause of the presence in animals of this function (to wit the admission and emission of the breath), but treat it as though it were a contingent accompaniment of life. Yet it evidently has control over life and death, for it results synchronously that when respiring animals are unable to breathe they perish. Again, it is absurd that the

[472b.30] passage of the hot air out through the mouth and back again should be quite perceptible, while we were not able to detect the thoracic influx and the return outwards once more of the heated breath. It is also nonsense that respiration should consist in the entrance of heat, for the evidence is to the contrary effect; what is breathed out is hot, and what is

[472b.35] breathed in is cold. When it is hot we pant in breathing,

[473a.1] for, because what enters does not adequately perform its cooling function, we have as a consequence to draw the breath frequently. to 478 ἃ CHAPTER XII (VI) It is certain, however, that we must not entertain the notion that it is for purposes of nutrition that respiration is designed, and believe that the internal fire is fed by the breath; respiration, as it were, adding fuel to the fire, while the feeding of the flame results in the outward passage of the breath. To combat this doctrine I shall repeat what I said in opposition to the previous theories. This, or something analogous to it, should occur in the other animals also (on this theory), for all possess vital heat. Further, how are we to describe this fictitious process of the generation of heat from the breath ? Observation shows rather that it is a product of the food. A consequence also of this theory is that the nutriment would enter and the refuse be discharged by the same channel, but this does not appear to occur in the other instances. on oO CHAPTER NII (VII) Empedocles also gives an account of respiration without, however, making clear what its purpose is, or whether or not it is universal in animals. Also when dealing with respiration by means of the nostrils he imagines he is dealing with what is the primary kind of respiration. Even the breath which passes through the nostrils passes through the windpipe out

[473a.20] of the chest as well, and without the latter the nostrils cannot act. Again, when animals are bereft of respiration through the nostrils, no detrimental result ensues, but, when prevented from breathing through the windpipe, they die. Nature employs respiration through the nostrils as a secondary function in certain animals in order to enable them to smell. But the - reason why it exists in some only is that though almost all animals are endowed with the sense of smell, the sense- organ is not the same in all. A more precise account has been given about this else- where.' Empedocles, however, explains the passage inwards 473 Ὁ and outwards of the breath, by the theory that there are -_ iv. 534” τό, de Part. Animal. ii. 659” 15. 473 Ὁ 5 25 474 ἃ Di RESPIRATIONE certain blood-vessels, which, while containing blood, are not filled by it, but have passages leading to the outer air, the calibre of which is fine in contrast to the size of the solid particles, but large relatively to those in the air. Hence, since it is the nature of the blood to move upwards and downwards, when it moves down the air rushes in and inspiration occurs; when the blood rises, the air is forced out and the outward motion of the breath results. He compares this process to what occurs in a clepsydra. Thus all things outwards breathe and in ;—-their flesh has tubes Bloodless, that stretch towards the body’s outmost edge, Which, at their mouths, full many frequent channels pierce, Cleaving the extreme nostrils through ; thus, while the gore Lies hid, for air is cut a thoroughfare most plain. And thence, whenever shrinks away the tender blood, Enters the blustering wind with swelling billow wild. But when the blood leaps up, backward it breathes. As when With water-clock of polished bronze! a maiden sporting, Sets on her comely hand the narrow of the tube And dips it in the frail-formed water's silvery sheen ; Not then the flood the vessel enters, but the air, Pressing within on the dense orifices, checks it, Until she frees the crowded stream. But then indeed Upon the air’s escape runs in the water meet. So also when within the vessel's deeps the water Remains, the opening by the hand of flesh being closed, The outer air that entrance craves restrains the flood At the gates of the sounding narrow, upon the surface pressing, Until the maid withdraws her hand. But then in contrariwise Once more the air comes in and water meet flows out. Thus too the subtle blood, surging throughout the limbs, Whene’er it shrinks away into the far recesses Admits a stream of air rushing with swelling wave, But, when it backward leaps, in like bulk air flows out. This then is what he says of respiration. But, as we said, all animals that evidently respire do so by means of the windpipe, when they breathe either through the mouth or διειπετέος χαλκοῖο, with Diels, Vorsokratiker, 2nd ed., » Pp. 200.

[474a.1] through the nostrils. Hence, if it is of this kind of respira- tion that he is talking, we must ask how it tallies with the explanation given. But the facts seem to be quite opposed. The chest is raised in the manner of a forge-bellows when the breath is drawn in—it is quite reasonable that it should be heat which raises up and that the blood should occupy the hot region—but it collapses and sinks down, like the bellows once more, when the breath is let out. The difference is that in a bellows it is not by the same channel that the air is taken in and let out, but in breathing it is. But, if Empedocles is accounting only for respiration through the nostrils, he is much in error, for that does not involve the nostrils alone, but passes by the channel beside

[474a.20] the uvula where the extremity of the roof of the mouth is, some of the air going this way through the apertures of the nostrils and some through the mouth, both when it enters and when it passes out. Such then is the nature and magni- tude of the difficulties besetting the theories of other writers concerning respiration. fe) ~~ 5 CHAPTER XIV (VIII)

[474a.25] We have already stated that life and the presence of soul involve a certain heat. Not even the digesting process to which is due the nutrition of animals occurs apart from soul and warmth, for it is to fire that in all cases elaboration is due. It is for this reason, precisely, that the primary nutritive soul also must be located in that part of the 3° body and in that division of this region which is the immediate vehicle of this principle. The region in question 474 Ὁ is intermediate between that where food enters and that where excrement is discharged. In bloodless animals it has no name, but in the sanguineous class this organ is called the heart. The blood constitutes the nutriment from which the organs of the animal are directly formed. Likewise the blood-vessels must have the same originating 5 source, since the one exists for the other's behoof—as a vessel or receptacle for it. In sanguineous animals the heart is the starting-point of the veins; they do not traverse AR PN K 474 Ὁ Io 15 20 ~ 25 30

[475a.1] it, but are found to stretch out from it, as dissections! enable us to see. Now the other psychical faculties cannot exist apart from the power of nutrition (the reason has already been stated in the treatise on the soul),* and this depends on the natural fire, by the union with which Nature has set it aglow. But fire, as we have already stated, is destroyed in two ways, either by extinction or by exhaustion. It suffers extinction from its opposites. Hence it can be extinguished by the surrounding cold both when in mass and (though more speedily) when scattered. Now this way of perishing is due to violence equally in living and in lifeless objects, for the division of an animal by instruments and consequent congelation by excess of cold cause death. But exhaustion is due to excess of heat; for, if there is too much heat close at hand and the thing burning does not have a fresh supply of fuel added to it, it goes out by exhaustion, not by the action of cold. Hence, if it is going to continue it must be cooled, for cold is a preventive against this form of extinction. CHAPTER XV (IX) Some animals occupy the water, others live on land, and, that being so, in the case of those which are very small and bloodless the refrigeration due to the surrounding water or air is sufficient to prevent destruction from this cause. Having little heat, they require little cold to combat it. Hence too such animals are almost all short-lived, for, being small, they have less scope for deflection towards either extreme. But some insects are longer-lived (though bloodless, like all the others), and these have a deep indentation beneath the waist, in order to secure cooling through the membrane, which there is thinner. They are warmer animals and hence require more refrigeration, and such are bees (some of which live as long as seven years) and all that make a humming noise, like wasps, cockchafers, and crickets. They make a sound as if of panting by means of air, for, in the middle

[475a.35] 1 According to Bonitz, /zd. p. 104° 6, the reference here and at 4788 is to a lost treatise of Aristotle’s on Anatomy. ? De An.i. 411” 18, ii. 413% 1. CHAPTER XV (IX) section itself, the air which exists internally and is involved in their construction, causing a rising and falling movement, produces friction against the membrane. The way in which they move this region is like the motion due to the lungs in animals that breathe the outer air, or to the gills in fishes. What occurs is comparable to the suffocation of a respiring animal by holding its mouth, for then the lung causes a heaving motion of this kind. In the case of these animals this internal motion is not sufficient for refrigeration, but in insects it is. It is by friction against the membrane that they produce the humming sound, as we said, in the way that children do by blowing through the holes of a reed covered by a fine membrane. It is thus that the singing crickets too produce their song ; they possess greater warmth and are indented at the waist, but the songless variety have no fissure there. Animals also which are sanguineous and possess a lung, though that contains little blood and is spongy, can in some cases, owing to the latter fact, live a long time without breathing; for the lung, containing little blood or fluid, can rise a long way: its own motion can for a long time produce sufficient refrigeration. But at last it ceases to suffice, and the animal dies of suffocation if it does not respire—as we have already said. For of exhaustion that kind which is destruction due to lack of refrigeration is called suffocation, and whatsoever is thus destroyed is said to be suffocated. We have already stated that among animals insects do not respire, and the fact is open to observation in the case of even small creatures like flies and bees, for they can swim about in 475 ἃ _~ fe) uo 5 30

[475b.1] a fluid for a long time if it is not too hot or too cold. Yet animals with little strength tend to breathe more frequently. These, however, die of what is called suffocation when the stomach becomes filled and the heat in the central segment is destroyed. This explains also why they revive after being among ashes for a time.

[475b.5] Again among water-animals those that are bloodless remain alive longer"in air than those that have blood and admit the sea-water, as, for example, fishes. Since it is a small quantity of heat they possess, the air is for a long K 2 475 Ὁ DE RESPIRATIONE time adequate for the purposes of refrigeration in such 1oanimals as the crustacea and the polyps. It does not however suffice, owing to their want of heat, to keep them finally in life, for most fishes also live though among earth, yet in a motionless state, and are to be found by digging. For all animals that have no lung at all or have a bloodless one require less refrigeration. CHAPTER XVI (X) 1; Concerning the bloodless animals we have declared that in some cases it is the surrounding air, in others fluid, that aids the maintenance of life. But in the case of animals possessing blood and heart, all which have a lung admit the air and produce the cooling effect by breathing in and

[475b.20] out. All animals have a lung that are viviparous and are so internally, not externally merely (the Selachia are viviparous, but not internally), and of the oviparous class those that have wings, e. g. birds, and those with scales, e. g. tortoises, lizards, and snakes. The former class have a lung charged with blood, but in the most part of the latter it is spongy. Hence

[475b.25] they employ respiration more sparingly as already said. The function is found also in all that frequent and pass their life in the water, e.g. the class of water-snakes and frogs and crocodiles and hemydes, both sea- and land-tortoises, and seals. All these and similar animals both bring forth on land

[475b.30] and sleep on shore or, when they do so in the water, keep

[476a.1] the head above the surface in order to respire. But all with gills produce refrigeration by taking in water; the Selachia and all other footless animals have gills. Fish are footless, and the limbs they have get their name (πτερύγιον) from their

[476a.5] similarity to wings (πτέρυξ). But of those with feet one only, so far as observed, has gills. It is called the tadpole. No animal yet has been seen to possess both lungs and gills, and the reason for this is that the lung is designed for the purpose of refrigeration by means of the air (it seems to have derived its name (πνεύμων) from its function as a re-

[476a.10] ceptacle of the breath (πνεῦμα)), while gills are relevant to CHAPTER XVI (X) 476a refrigeration by water. Now for one purpose one organ is adapted and one single means of refrigeration is sufficient in every case. Hence, since we see that Nature does nothing in vain, and if there were two organs one would be purposeless, this is the reason why some animals have gills, others lungs, but none possess both. -- CHAPTER XVII (XI) Every animal in order to exist requires nutriment, in order to prevent itself from dying, refrigeration; and so Nature employs the same organ for both purposes. For, as in some cases the tongue serves both for discerning tastes and for speech, so in animals with lungs the mouth is employed both in working up the food and in the passage of the breath outwards and inwards. In lungless and non-respiring animals it is employed in working up the food, while in those of them that require refrigeration it is the gills that are created for this purpose.

[476a.25] We shall state further on how it is that these organs have the faculty of producing refrigeration. But to prevent their food from impeding these operations there is a similar con- trivance in the respiring animals and in those that admit water. At the moment of respiration they do not take in

[476a.30] food, for otherwise suffocation results owing to the food, whether liquid or dry, slipping in through the windpipe and lying on the lung. The windpipe is situated before the oesophagus, through which food passes into what is called the stomach, but in quadrupeds which are sanguineous there is, as it were, a lid over the windpipe—the epiglottis. In

[476b.1] birds and oviparous quadrupeds this covering is absent, but its office is discharged by a contraction of the windpipe. The latter class contract the windpipe when swallowing their food; the former close down the epiglottis. When the food has passed, the epiglottis is in the one case raised, and in the other the windpipe is expanded, and the air enters to effect

[476b.5] refrigeration. In animals with gills the water is first dis- charged through them and then the food passes in through the mouth; they have no windpipe and hence can take no re) harm from liquid lodging in this organ, only from its entering the stomach. For these reasons the expulsion of water and

[476b.10] the seizing of their food is rapid, and their teeth are sharp and in almost all cases arranged in a saw-like fashion, for they are debarred from chewing their food. CHAPTER XVIII (XII) Among water-animals the cetaceans may give rise to some perplexity, though they too can be rationally explained.

[476b.15] Examples of such animals are dolphins and whales, and all others that have a blow-hole. They have no feet, yet possess a lung though admitting the sea-water. The reason for possessing a lung is that which we have now stated [refrigeration]; the admission of water is not for the purpose of refrigeration. That is effected by respiration, for they have zoa lung. Hence they sleep with their head out of the water, and dolphins, at any rate, snore. Further, if they are entangled in nets they soon die of suffocation owing to lack of respiration, and hence they can be seen to come to the surface owing to the necessity of breathing. But, since they have to feed

[476b.25] in the water, they must admit it, and it is in order to discharge this that they all have a blow-hole; after admitting the water they expel it through the blow-hole as the fishes do through the gills. The position of the blow-hole is an indication of this, for it leads to none of the organs which are charged with blood; but it lies before the brain and thence discharges water. 30 ~=s It is for the very same reason that molluscs and crustaceans admit water—I mean such animals as Carabi and Carcini. For none of these is refrigeration a necessity, for in every case they have little heat and are bloodless, and hence are

[477a.1] sufficiently cooled by the surrounding water. But in feeding they admit water, and hence must expel it in order to prevent its being swallowed simultaneously with the food. Thus crustaceans, like the Carcini and Carabi, discharge water through the folds beside their shaggy parts, while cuttle-fish and the polyps employ for this purpose the hollow above the CHAPTER XVIII (XII) 477 a

[477a.5] head. There is, however, a more precise account of these in the History of Animals. Thus it has been explained that the cause of the admission of the water is refrigeration, and the fact that animals consti-

[477a.10] tuted for a life in water must feed in it. CHAPTER XIX (XIII) An account must next be given of refrigeration and the manner in which it occurs in respiring animals and those possessed of gills. We have already said that all animals with lungs respire. The reason why some creatures have

[477a.15] this organ, and why those having it need respiration, is that the higher animals have a greater proportion of heat, for at the same time they must have been assigned a higher soul and they have a higher nature than plants.?. Hence too those with most blood and most warmth in the lung are of greater size, and that animal in which the blood in the 290 lung is purest and most plentiful is the most erect, namely man; and the reason why he alone has his upper part directed to the upper part of the universe is that he possesses such a lung. Hence this organ as much as any other must be assigned to the essence of the animal both in man and in other cases.

[477a.25] This then is the purpose of refrigeration. As for the constraining and efficient cause, we must believe that it created animals like this, just as it created many others also not of this constitution. For some have a greater proportion of earth in their composition, like plants, and others, e. g. aquatic animals, contain a larger amount of water; while winged and terrestrial animals have an excess of air and fire respectively.

[477a.30] It is always in the region proper to the element prepon- derating in the scheme of their constitution that things exist. CHAPTER XX (XIV) Empedocles is then in error when he says that those

[477b.1] animals which have the most warmth and fire live in the 2 Which are cold. Hence a higher soul entails more heat. Biehl, water to counterbalance the excess of heat in their consti- tution, in order that, since they are deficient in cold and fluid, they may be kept in life by the contrary character of the region they occupy; for water has less heat than air.

[477b.5] But it is wholly absurd that the water-animals should in every case originate on dry land, and afterwards change their place of abode to the water ; for they are almost all footless. He, however, when describing their original structure says that, though originating on dry land, they have abandoned it and migrated to the water. But again it is evident that they ro are not warmer than land-animals, for in some cases they have no blood at all, in others little. The question, however, as to what sorts of animals should be called warm and what cold, has in each special case received consideration. Though in one respect there is reason in the explanation which Empedocles aims at estab- lishing, yet his account is not correct. Excess in a bodily

[477b.15] State is cured by a situation or season of opposite character, but the constitution is best maintained by an environment akin to it. There is a difference between the material of which any animal is constituted and the states and disposi- tions of that material. For example, if nature were to con- stitute a thing of wax or of ice, she would not preserve it

[477b.20] by putting it in a hot place, for the opposing quality would quickly destroy it, seeing that heat dissolves that which cold congeals. Again, a thing composed of salt or nitre would not be taken and placed in water, for fluid dissolves that of which the consistency is due to the hot and the dry. Hence if the fluid and the dry supply the material for all bodies, it is reasonable that things the composition of which is due to the fluid and the cold should have liquid for their

[477b.25] medium [and, if they are cold, they will exist in the cold]", while that which is due to the dry will be found in the dry. Thus trees grow not in water but on dry land. But the same theory would relegate them to the water, on account of their excess of dryness, just as it does the things that are exces- spurious. ERAS CHAPTER XX (XIV) 477b sively fiery. They would migrate thither not on account of its cold but owing to its fluidity. Thus the natural character of the material of objects is of 39 the same nature as the region in which they exist ; the liquid

[478a.1] is found in liquid, the dry on land, the warm in air. With regard, however, to states of body, a cold situation has, on the other hand, a beneficial effect on excess of heat, and a warm environment on excess of cold, for the region reduces to a mean the excess in the bodily condition. The regions appropriate to each material and the revolutions of the seasons which all experience supply the means which must be sought in order to correct such excesses ; but, while states of the body can be opposed in character to the environment, the material of which it is composed can never be so. This, then, is a sufficient explanation of why it is not owing to the heat in their constitution that some animals are aquatic, others terrestrial, as Empedocles maintains, and of why some

[478a.10] possess lungs and others do not. 5)» CHAPTER XXI (XV) The explanation of the admission of air and respiration in those animals in which a lung is found, and especially in those in which it is full of blood, is to be found in the fact that it is of a spongy nature and full of tubes, and that it is the most fully charged with blood of all the visceral organs. All animals with a full-blooded lung require rapid refrigera- tion because there is little scope for deviation from the normal amount of their vital fire; the air also must penetrate all through it on account of the large quantity of blood and heat it contains. But both these operations can be easily per- formed by air, for, being of a subtle nature, it penetrates everywhere and that rapidly, and so performs its cooling

[478a.20] function ; but water has the opposite characteristics. The reason why animals with a full-blooded lung respire most is hence manifest ; the more heat there is, the greater is the need for refrigeration, and at the same time breath can easily pass to the source of heat in the heart. 2 30 35

[478b.1] In order to understand the way in which the heart is con- nected with the lung by means of passages, we must consult both dissections and the account in the A/zstory of Animals} The universal cause of the need which the animal has for refrigeration, is the union of the soul with fire that takes place in the heart. Respiration is the means of effecting refrigeration, of which those animals make use that possess a lung as well asa heart. But when they, as for example the fishes, which on account of their aquatic nature have no lung, possess the latter organ without the former, the cooling is effected through the gills by means of water. For ocular evidence as to how the heart is situated relatively to the gills we must employ dissections, and for precise details we must refer to Natural History. As a summarizing statement, however, and for present purposes, the following is the account of the matter. It might appear that the heart has not the same position in terrestrial animals and in fishes, but the position really is identical, for the apex of the heart is in the direction in which they incline their heads. But it is towards the mouth in fishes that the apex of the heart points, seeing that they do not incline their heads in the same direction as land-animals do. Now from the extremity of the heart a tube of a sinewy, arterial character runs to the centre where the gills all join. This then is the largest of those ducts, but on either side of the heart others also issue and run to the extremity of each gill, and by means of the ceaseless flow of water through the gills, effect the cooling which passes to the heart. In similar fashion as the fish move their gills, respiring animals with rapid action raise and let fall the chest accord- ing as the breath is admitted or expelled. If the air 15 limited in amount and unchanged they are suffocated, for either medium, owing to contact with the blood, rapidly becomes hot. The heat of the blood counteracts the refrigeration and, 1 Hist, Animal. i. ch. 17, iii. chh. 2-3. 2 Ibid., ii. 507 3. CHAPTER XXII (XVI) 478 b when respiring animals can no longer move the lung or

[478b.20] aquatic animals their gills, whether owing to disease or old age, their death ensues. CHAPTER XXIII (XVII) (De Vita et Morte 7.) To be born and to die are common to all animals, but there are specifically diverse ways in which these phenomena occur; of destruction there are different types, though yet something is common to them all. There is violent death and again natural death, and the former occurs when the cause of death is external, the latter when it is internal, and! involved from the beginning in the constitution of the organ, and not an affection derived from a foreign source. In the case of plants the name given to this is withering, in animals senility. Death and decay pertain to all things that are not imperfectly developed; to the imperfect also they may be

[478b.30] ascribed in nearly the same but not an identical sense. Under the imperfect I class eggs and seeds of plants as they are before the root appears. It is always to some lack of heat that death is due, and in perfect creatures the cause 1s its failure in the organ contain- ing the source of the creature's essential nature. This mem- ber is situate, as has been said, at the junction of the upper and lower parts; in plants it is intermediate between the

[478b.35] root and the stem, in sanguineous animals it is the heart, and in those that are bloodless the corresponding part of their

[479a.1] body. But some of these animals have potentially many sources of life, though in actuality they possess only one. This is why some insects live when divided, and why, even among sanguineous animals, all whose vitality is not intense live for a long time after the heart has been removed.

[479a.5] Tortoises, for example, do so and make movements with their feet, so long as the shell is left, a fact to be explained by the natural inferiority of their constitution, as it is in insects also. The source of life is lost to its possessors when the heat 479 ἃ DE RESPIRATIONE with which it is bound up is no longer tempered by cooling,

[479a.10] for, as I have often remarked, it is consumed by itself. Hence when, owing to lapse of time, the lung in the one class and the gills in the other get dried up, these organs become hard and earthy and incapable of movement, and cannot be ex- panded or contracted. Finally things come to a climax, and the fire goes out from exhaustion.

[479a.15] Hence a small disturbance will speedily cause death in old age. Little heat remains, for the most of it has been breathed away in the long period of life preceding, and hence any increase of strain on the organ quickly causes extinction. It is just as though the heart contained a tiny feeble flame which the slightest movement puts out. Hence in old age death is painless, for no violent disturbance is required to cause death, and there is an entire absence of feeling when the soul’s connexion is severed. All diseases which harden the lung by forming tumours or waste residues, or by excess of morbid heat, as happens in fevers, accelerate the breathing owing to the inability of the lung to move far either upwards or down- wards. Finally, when motion is no longer possible, the breath is given out and death ensues. 2 Oo 2 CHAPTER XXIV (XVIII) Generation is the initial participation, mediated by warm substance, in the nutritive soul, and life is the maintenance of

[479a.30] this participation. Youth is the period of the growth of the primary organ of refrigeration, old age of its decay, while the intervening time is the prime of life. A violent death or dissolution consists in the extinction or exhaustion of the vital heat (for either of these may cause

[479b.1] dissolution), while natural death is the exhaustion of the heat owing to lapse of time, and occurring at the end of life. In plants this is to wither, in animals to die. Death, in old age, is the exhaustion due to inability on the part of the organ, owing to old age, to produce refrigeration. and the reason for their occurrence in animals. CHAPTER XXV (XIX) It is hence also clear why respiring animals are suffocated in

[479b.10] water and fishes in air. For it is by water in the latter class, by air in the former that refrigeration is effected, and either of these means of performing the function is removed by a change of environment. There is also to be explained in either case the cause of the motion of the gills and of the lungs, the rise and_ fall of which effects the admission and expulsion of the breath

[479b.15] or of water. The following, moreover, is the manner of the constitution of the organ. CHAPTER XXVI (XX) (De Vita et Morte 71.) In connexion with the heart there are three phenomena, which, though apparently of the same nature, are really not so, namely palpitation, pulsation, and respiration. Palpitation is the rushing together of the hot substance in

[479b.20] the heart owing to the chilling influence of residual or waste products. It occurs, for example, in the ailment known as ‘spasms’ and in other diseases. It occurs also in fear, for when one is afraid the upper parts become cold, and the hot substance, fleeing away, by its concentration in the heart

[479b.25] produces palpitation. It is crushed into so small a space that sometimes life is extinguished, and the animals die of the fright and morbid disturbance. The beating of the heart, which, as can be seen, goes on continuously, is similar to the throbbing of an abscess. That, however, is accompanied by pain, because the change pro-

[479b.30] duced in the blood is unnatural, and it goes on until the matter formed by concoction is discharged. There is a similarity between this phenomenon and that of boiling; for boiling is due to the volatilization of fluid by heat and the expansion consequent on increase of bulk. But in an abscess, if there is no evaporation through the walls, the process ter-

[480a.1] minates in suppuration due to the thickening of the liquid, while in boiling it ends in the escape of the fluid out of the containing vessel. 5 -- J to cn 30 In the heart the beating is produced by the heat expanding the fluid, of which the food furnishes a constant supply. It occurs when the fluid rises to the outer wall of the heart, and it goes on continuously ; for there is a constant flow of the fluid that goes to constitute the blood, it being in the heart that the blood receives its primary elaboration. That this is so we can perceive in the initial stages of generation, for the heart can be seen to contain blood before the veins become distinct. This explains why pulsation in youth exceeds that in older people, for in the young the formation of vapour is more abundant. All the veins pulse, and do so simultaneously with each other, owing to their connexion with the heart. The heart always beats, and hence they also beat continuously and simultaneously with each other and with it. Palpitation, then, is the recoil of the heart against the

[480a.5] compression due to cold; and pulsation is the volatilization of the heated fluid. CHAPTER XXVII (XXI) Respiration takes place when the hot substance which is the seat of the nutritive principle increases. For it, like the rest of the body, requires nutrition, and more so than the members, for it is through it that they are nourished. But when it increases it necessarily causes the organ to rise. This organ we must take to be constructed like the bellows in a smithy, for both heart and lungs conform pretty well to this shape. Such a structure must be double, for the nutritive principle must be situated in the centre of the natural ? force. Thus on increase of bulk expansion results, which neces- sarily causes the surrounding parts to rise. Now this can be seen to occur when people respire; they raise their chest because the motive principle of the organ described resident within the chest causes an identical expansion of this organ. When it dilates the outer air must rush in as into a bellows, and, being cold, by its chilling influence reduces by extinction the

[480b.1] excess of the fire. But, as the increase of bulk causes the CHAPTER XXVII (XXI) organ to dilate, so diminution causes contraction, and when it collapses the air which entered must pass out again. When it enters the air is cold, but on issuing it is warm owing to . its contact with the heat resident in this organ, and this is specially the case in those animals that possess a full-blooded lung. The numerous canal-like ducts in the lung, into which it passes, have each a blood-vessel lying alongside, so that the whole lung is thought to be full of blood. The inward passage of the air is called respiration, the outward expiration, and this double movement goes on continuously just so long as the animal lives and keeps this organ in continuous motion ; it is for this reason that life is bound up with the passage of the breath outwards and inwards. It is in the same way that the motion of the gills in fishes takes place. When the hot substance in the blood throughout the members rises, the gills rise too, and let the water pass through, but when it is chilled and retreats through its channels to the heart, they contract and eject the water. Continually as the heat in the heart rises, continually on being chilled it returns thitheragain. Hence, as in respiring animals life and death are bound up with respiration, so in the other animals class they depend on the admission of water. Our discussion of life and death and kindred topics is now practically complete. But health and disease also claim the attention of the scientist, and not merely of the physician, in so far as! an account of their causes is concerned. The extent to which these two differ and investigate diverse pro- vinces must not escape us, since facts show that their inquiries are, to a certain extent, at least conterminous. For physicians of culture and refinement make some mention of natural science, and claim to derive their principles from it, while the most accomplished investigators into nature generally push their studies so far as to conclude with an account of medical principles. 1 Hammond reads μέχρι του. It is the business of the natural philosopher also to discuss the causes of health and disease ‘ up to a certain point’. on -- See ee oo INDEX 362—8o0? = 4368-- 480? Acid (taste) 41° 6, 427 10, 19. Active and Passive 65? 16. Activity 49° I. Acute (perception) 44° 14. Actuality, actualization 52° 30; cf. Potentiality. Actualize 468 22, 54> 8, 61> 17; cf. Realize, Exercise. Actually 54» 26; cf. Potentially. Affections 50 1, 28, 53% 22, 28, ἢ 28, 54° 21, 56% 22, 75» 26. Age, old 36°14, 66 19, » 14, 67° 10; cf. 78 28. Air 43° 4, 6,25, 467 24, 70% 25. Amorous desire 60? 5. Analogous 43 7, 11, 69» 173 cf. 79® 2; cf. Proportionate. Anatomy 56” 2; cf. Dissection. Anaxagoras 70? 33. Anger 53° 22. Anima (de) 36” 10, 39% 8, 16, 40” 28, 49” 30, 55° 8, 24, 505 15, DEL. Animal (cf. Life); and Sensation 36” 11, 54> 24, 67” 25, 69> 4. Animals, and Sleep 54> 23; and Dreams 63» 12; and Memory 50 15, 53° ὃ. Annuals 66° 3. Ants 44? 12. Aorta 58% 15. Appearance 61} 5 ; cf. 48 14. Apprehend 45” 17; cf. Cognize. Arithmetically expressible (propor- tions) 42°15 sqq.; cf. 39> 28 sqq. Ashes 41° 4, 42% 27, 70° 13, 75” 5. Asphyxiate 44? 33. Astringent (savour) 42% 19, (odour) 43" 9. Atomistic hypothesis 45” 18. Atrabilious 57° 26, 64% 32; cf. Excitable, Melancholic. Attributes 36” 4 sqq., 65” 12. Audible 37 12, 45 10. Bees 44> 11, 67% 4, 68% 26, 75% 4. AR PN Being 46” 27, 49? 16, 18. Bellows 80% 20. Bile 57° 31. Bitter (savour) 42% 13, 19 566. Bituminous substances 44? 33. Bivalvular 68” 10. Black 42° 26. Blight 70% 30. Blood 58 13, 15, 61» 11, 69 I, 7, 74° 14, > 3, 80% 7. Bloodless animals 66% 5, 69» 6, 74” 2,75” 15, 79% I. Blue 428 24. Bodies 37° 7, (determinate) 39° 27,

[480b.15] b 113; cf. Magnitudes 45> 566. Body, and Soul 368 8, 65% 28; cf. 65 12 sqq. Borysthenes 62» 25. Brain 38> 29, 44° 9, 30, 57” 29, 69° 21. Breath 44» 22; cf. Respiration. Brimstone 44? 33. Buds 68» 24. Cause 37% 12, 20, &c.; four causes 55> 14; efficient 77% 25; illus- trated 62” 27 sqq. ; cf. End, Final Cause. Carabi 76° 32, 77° 3. Carcini 76” 32, 77° 3. Cetaceans 76” 13, 19. Chance 559; cf. 388 30, 72° 17; cf. Fortuitous. Chest ; cf. Thorax. Children 53 6, 57® 4, 14. Cockchafers 75% 6. Cognize 45” 15, 52> 7; cf. Appre- hend, Knowledge. Coinstantaneous perception 478 14 sqq., 48” 19 sqq. Cold 43” 16, 44 10, » 1, 57° 27 sqq., ἢ 4 sqq., 74” 19 sqq. Colour 377 7, 395 7-40” 27, 42° 14 sqq., 45” 21 sqq. INDEX Common sensibles 37% 8, 42” 4, 10; sensorium 55) 19, 69° 12. Compounds 48° 8; cf. Mixture. Conception 49” 24. Concords 39 31, 40% 2, 47> 2, 48% 19. Condense 438 28, 57” 33. Connate warmth 69? 7. Connatural breath 56 17. Constitution, of animals (φύσις) 77° 15, 78° 6; of blood 80% 6; cf. 26, 27, ἢ 8, 23, 78 26; cf. 38" 29. Continuity 45% 27, " 30, 46” 14, 48»

[480b.20] (22 vulg.), 50% 7, 60% Io. Contraries, contrariety 41> 14, 45” 24, 26, 48" 2, 53> 27, 540 1; cf. Opposites. Co-ordinate sensibles 47” 30, 488 15. Corporeal 45% 22, Material. Crabs 76” 32, 77° 3. Crickets 75% 6. Crimson 428 24. Crocodile 75” 28. Crustaceans 75? 9, 76” 31, 77% 2. Custom 528 27, » 2. Customary 51? 13. Cuttle-fish 37” 7, 77% 4. 23, 53° 4; cf. Darkness 37% 25, 32, " 5, 6, 39% 20, > 16 Darnel 56° 30. Death, definition of 69» 18, 79% 22, 33; and life 374 15, 6710; and generation 78» 22; violent and natural 72 18, 78> 24, 79 4; painless 79° 20. Decay 41 29, 30, 79% 32. Define 43” 18, 54° 25. Deliberation 53 14. Democritus 38% 5, 42% 29, » 10, 643 5, 11, 71° 30, 725 3. Determinate bodies 39° 27 sqq. Derangement 64° 24. Destruction 36” 5, 654 12 sqq., 78» 22; cf. Disintegration, Dissolu- tion. Die 72° ΤΙ: Death. Digest 69> 26, γ4 26. Discern 42” 13, 17, 45” 15. Discriminate 47? 25. Disease 36% 18, 79% 23, 80” 22; cf. Unhealthy, Morbid. 73. 21, )5. 17: οἹ Disintegration 658 25; cf. Destruc- tion, Dissolution. Disposition 77” 18. Dissection 74” 9, 78 35; cf. Ana- tomy. Dissolution (φθείρειν) 65% 20, 77” 19, 22, 79 33; cf. Destruction, Disintegration. Divide (into species) 445 6. Divisible, in actualization 498 12; into minimal parts 40? 5 sqq. ; infinitely 45 1 sqq.; animals 68 27,” Io. Divination 49” 12, 62» 12, 64” 18. Divinely-planned 63? 14. Dreams 58% 33-64” 18. Dry 41° 17, 18, 42” 28, 43° 2, 13, b 5, 66% 21, 23. Dwarfs 53° 31, » 6, 67 32. Earth 38” 30, 41% 30, » 11. Earthy 41” 17, 18, 674 9. Elaboration, of food 69» 31; cf. 425 5, 43 16; of blood 80% 6. Elements 37% 20, 41” 12, 43% 9. Emanations 38% 4, 40% 15, 20, 43" 2, 64° 6, Il. Emotions 60” 3 sqq. Empedocles 37” 11, 24 sqq., 38° 4, 418 4, 10, 46 26,73" 15 sqq., 77" 32. End 55" 22; Purpose. Environment 39? 5, 468 8, 65» 27, 72 12. 1524. Epiglottis 76% 34. Epilepsy 578 9. Error 42” 8, 60° 3, 61» 7, 65% 23. Essence (of animal) 77% 23, 78” 33; cf. Substance. Eternal 65” 29. Euripides 43 30. Evaporation 578 25, 29, 62» 7, 69531. Excess, in a ratio 39” 29; of waking 54> 6; of cold 74 19; of heat 77” 2, 788 3, 708 25; of moisture 44> 1, 66% 1. Excitable 63> 17; cf. Atrabilious, Melancholic. Excrement, Excrementitious, 58° 2, 68" 15; cf. Refuse, Waste. Exercise, of a faculty 49? 22; of knowledge 41° 23. Exhalation 438 21 sqq., 43° 2, 44° 12. Exhaustion 69» 21 sqq., 74” 13, 795 33: cf. Final Cause, INDEX Expectation 49? 12, 27. Experience 62? 16, Extinction; cf. Exhaustion. Extremes 45” 23, 24, 47% 30. Eye 37 24-38" 20, 54% 28. Eyelids 44> 26, 56 32, 57” 4. Faculty 36° 2, 37° 5, 47° 18, 4051, b 22, 545 17, > 13, 67 17, 605 3; cf. Potentiality. Familiarity 64% 30. Fat 66° 23, Ὁ 2, 67% 4. Fever 62” 30, 79° 25. Figures, geometrical 42» 20 sqq.; cf. 50% 2 sqq., 52” 7 sqq. Final cause 55> 17, 71 25 ; cf. 69% 8; cf. End, Purpose. Fineness of perception (ἀκρίβεια) 419 2; cf. 44” 9. Fire 41> 10, 65% 14, » 2 sqq., 69» 21, 27, 70% 3, 74° 13. Fish 44° 8 sqq., 767 1, 3, 24, ἢ 10, 78> 34, 80? 15. Flame 37> 22, 65> 23, 66” 30, 69» 33, 79 19. Flowers, scents of 43” 27, 44° 33. Fluid 75> 16, 77> 22 sqq.;_ cf. Humidity, Moisture. Food; cf. Nutriment. Force ; cf. Violence. Fortuitous events, 52 1; cf. Chance. Fragrant 44° 18. Freezing 47° 3 sqq. Frogs 75? 28. Frost 37” 22, 66" 28, 70% 28. Fumid exhalation 433 21 sqq. Function 36% 4, 54° 26, 29. Future (τὸ μέλλον) 49 10; cf. 63° 29. Gasp 71° 30, » 13. Generation 65° 14, 78° 22, 79° 29; Generatione Animalium (de) 42" 3. Genus 48> 25, 49” 15, 65% 4. Geometry 50 2, 528 3. Gills 762 1 sqq., Go? 13. God 62? 20, 63” 16, 643 21. Gold 43° 17. Good, the 37° 1, 55» 18, 25. Graft 68” 18, 22. Grave (in music) 77? 2. Green (leek-) 428 24. Growth 41> 30, 42% 5, 50° 7; cf. Increase. Habit ; cf. Custom, Familiarity. | Habituate 43% 2. Harsh savour 428 19; odour 43? 10. | Health, Healthy 367 17, 445 14, 23, | 53” 29, 64° 23, 80? 23. Hearing 37 10," 5, 11, 39% 16, 45° 10, 46° 3, 16. Heart 39° 3, 56 1, 582 15, 17, 68> 31, 69° 4 sqq., ἢ το, 12, 74” 7, 785 26 sqq., 79” 17. Heat ‘41> 29, 30, 425 5, 445 23; bodily 56> 21, 7o® 5; τῇ Warmth. Hercules, Pillars of 62” 24. Hemydes 70? 18, 75” 28. History of Animals 77 5, 78” 1. Holoptera 568 14, 20. Hot; cf. Heat. Humidity 66% 26, » 21, 67213; cf. Moisture. Illusions 60? g, 61° 8. Image (εἴδωλον) 38% 12, 61° 15, 648 5, 113 (φάντασμα) cf. Presenta- tion. Imagination; cf. Presentation. Immersion, of dryness in fluid 458 14. Imperceptible 4175, 48° 25, »2, 16. Imperfectly developed 558 7, 78” 30. Impression σοῦ 31, "Ὁ 6, 16. Incommensurable 39” 30 sqq.; cf. 42° 13 566: Incorruptible 65” 2, 20. Increase 65” 31; cf. Growth. Independent existence 65 14; cf. Separate. Individual time 478 13, 49% 3, 512 26; cf. Indivisible. 49° 26, 28, (ἄτομος) 48> 19, 21; cf. Individual. Inference 53° 10 sqq.; by inference 68 22; cf. 65% 26, 69% 28. Infinite 4o* 23, » 24, 45° 3, 27. Inhale 71° 8. Inhalation 43 2, 71° 7; cf. 762 21, 80” 9. Inhibit 59% 7, 61° 6. Inhibition 54” 10, 26. Insects 67% 20 sqq., 75% 1-” 4. Intellect 49> 31 sqq., 50% 16. Intelligence 372 1, κοῦ 13, 16, 58” 2. Intermediate colours and savours 42° 12. Interval, musical 468 3; of dis- tance 40“ 25. INDEX Invisible 39 21, 40% 30, 49% 25; cf. 46? 5. Irregular colours 40 4. Juxtaposition of colours 40% 6 564.» Ce Knipes 44? 12. Knowledge (τὸ Oewpiev) 41” 23, Apprehend, Thought. Koriskos 50> 31, 61 23, 24, 62° 5. Land-animals 668 6 sqq., " 33, 74°

[480b.25] sqq. Learning 41° 23, 51% 21, » 7, 52° 4, 65 23. Life, and heat 69 6, 74% 25, » 10; and heat and moisture 66° 18, 69> 8; and nutrition 79% 30; and respiration 67> 12, 80” 12, 19; long and short 64” 19 sqq., 66" 9 564. Light 37> 16 sqq., 38% 29, 39% 18, Ὁ 16, 46 27, 479 11. Likeness (εἰκών) 50? 21 sqq., 518 14, 15. Limit 45 23, 468 19. Liquid 47° 7, 78> 32; cf. Moist. Living (distinction between living and animal) 67” 18 sqq. Lizards 75 22. Locomotion 36” 18; cf. 684 18. Longevity; cf. Life. Lung 70? 12, 75” 19, 767 6, 77° 13, 14. Magnitudes 408 27, 30, 45” 9, 46° 15, 485 15, 49% 20; physical and mathematical 45? 15. Males and Females 66” το. Mandragora 56” 30. Corporeal. Mathematical quantities 45? 11. Matter 65» 11, 30, 66% 20, 67» 24, 78° 6; cf. 77> 16, 78” 30. Medical principles 80» 30; cf. 36 20 sqq. Medium (δεκτικόν) 65% 22; of per- ception 455 7, 46° τό, 47° 9. Melancholic 538 19; cf. Excitable, Atrabilious. Memory 49” 3-53” 10; definition 50> 28, 512 14; organ of 507 13, GI 10, Menses 59? 28 sqq. 45> 16; cf. Intellect, Reason; external 72° 22. Mixture 408 31 sqq., 428 12. Mnemonic exercises 51% 12. Mnemonic /ocd 52° 14. Moisture 37° 16, 43° 7, » 13, 47° 7, 66% 18, 22, 67% 1; cf. Humidity, Fluid. Molluscs 76” 31. Morbid 54” 6, 79> 26; cf. Un- healthy, Disease. Motion, Movement 46° 20, 29, Ὁ 27, 28, 59° 29; cf. 65 26; cf. Stimull. Mouth 53% 28, 68 το, 76% 20. Nature 52° 27, 55” 17, 63> 14, 65 27, 69" 28, 71” 26, 72° 2, 14, 76" 17, 77” 19, 78” 24, 70" 33, » I. Natural warmth or heat of animals 66> 32, 69> 25, 70 22, 74” 21, 80° 17. Natural History 42” 25. Natural Philosophers 41” 2, 428 30. Necessity 51» 12, 55» 26; cf. 779 25. Nostrils 44° 28, 732 17 sqq. Number (of Senses) 44 19, 45% 6. Numerical ratio 39” 22 sqq., 42°15 sqq. Nemec lly one 46° 22, 47» 13, 24, 29, 49" 14, 17. Nutriment 442 16, 45 17, 56° 34, 66> 28, 69% 32, 70% 22, 26; of flame 65” 24, 66> 31, 70° 2. Nutrition 36” 17, 41> 26 sqq., 43” 21, 44» 10, 45% 8, 74> 26. Nutritive, Nutrient, part of soul, or principle 54° 13, » 32, 688 2, 69% 26, 80° 23. Odorous 43% 14, Ὁ 17; cf. Odour. Odour 38” 24, 42 26-45" 1, 46% 20, b 13. Oesophagus 76° 31. Oil 41% 25, 60% 28. Opinion 49” 11, 502 16, 58 9, 25, a6 Opposites 53> 25, 65 4; cf. Con- traries, Origination 59 3; cf. Principle, Source. Oviparous animals 70? 17, 75» 21. INDEX Oysters 70? 32. Pairs, of attributesof animals 368 14. Palm-tree 66% Io. Palpitation 79” 19, 80 13. Parts of Animals, The 68” 32. Passage through which respiration is effected 57° 13. Passages, of the eye 38” 14; of the blood vessels 73” 3; cf. 80” 16. Passions 53 27; cf. Emotions. Pericarp 418 14, 30. Phantasms 51° 10; cf. Presentation. Philaegides 64? 2. Phlegm 58% 3, 63% 13. Physical philosophers 36 17, 70? 6, 2... 2. Physicians 368 20, 63% 5, 698 9, So 23. 27: Physics 36” 1. Plants 54° 16-78? 27 passim. Plato 72> 6; cf. 37 11. Polyps 75” to. Poppy 56 30. Potable 428 29. Potential 45? 30. Potentiality 41 20, 45» 30, 47> 14 sqq., 54° 8, 18, 688 28, » 3, 799 2. Potentially one 47? 14. Powers 65° 16; cf. Faculty. (note 2)-64” 8 passim. Principle, of Science 36” 1, 80 28 ; real 69% 29; cf. Source. Privation 39 20, 41» 24, 53” 26. Problem, The 56° 29, 70% 18. Proportionate 52» 12, 15; cf. Ana- logous. Psychical susceptibility 68» 14. Pulsation 79? 19. Pungent taste 428 19 ; odour 43? 9. Pupil, of eye 38% τό, » τό. Purple 40% 1, 42 23. Purpose 722 13; cf. End, Cause. Pythagoreans 39% 31, 45° 16. Final Quality 41» 16, 24, 45” 4, 49° 24. Qualitative change 46” 28, 47 2, 65> 30. Quarter-tone 46° 1, Rational discourse (λόγος) 37% 12. Realize a faculty 54> 13; cf. Ac- tualize. Reason 45" 16; cf. Mind, Intellect, Thought. Reasoning ; cf. Inference. Receptacle, of food 45% 24, 688 24; of blood 74? 6. Recollection 49” 6, 51% 18-53 10, 65" 22, Red Sea 66? 21. Refrigeration 708 7, 23, 26, 30, 783 16, 28, » 12, 19, 80 18. Refuse 65” 17; cf. Waste, Excre- ment. Regular colours 40 4. Remember 49” 3-53” 10; to re- member dreams 56° 27. Respire 56 8; cf. Respiration. Respiration 44% 25, Ὁ 3, 562 8, 7o» 6-80? 30. Respiratory region 45% 27. Rheums 448 13. Roof of mouth 74% 20. Root 67% 23, 684 10, » 19, 27. Salt 41> 4, 438 13, 61» 16. Sanguineous animals 66° 5, 75 20, 76 17 sqq. Savour 308 6, 40” 27-42» 26, 43» 15, 46 20. Saw-like formation of teeth 76? 11. Sciences 48” 31. Scale, on eyes 38% 24; cf. 44” 26, 54> 18. Scolopendra 71? 22. Seals 75> 29. Season 77” 15; cf. 70% 28. Seed 66° 8, 68> 17. Sensation 362 8, "6, 54 8, » 30 sqq., 68 14; definition of 54 8, 59” 4; internal and external 56° 21. Sense, common and special 55% 17, 58 4; cf. Sensibles, Sensus com- munis. Senses 44” 19, 45° 5. Sensibles 308 6, 45 8, 46> 25, 48» 15, 49" 20; special 39 6, 45" 4; common 37% 8, 42” 5 sqq.; con- trariety in 42> 18, 45> 24 ; minute 467 5 sqq. Sensitiveness 68? 13. Sensorium, Sensory organ 308 6 ; special and common 498 17, 55» 10 sqq., 58> 28 ; 67 28, 69 Io, presence of affections in 59% 24- 6o> 28, 61 26, » 22. Sensus communis 508 Io, Separate existence 398 23, 46% 6, 7, 54° 13; cf. Independent. INDEX Separation of blood 58 21. Sharp, Sharpness (opp. to blunt) 42 6, (opp. to grave) 47” 3. Sight, sense of 37% 22-38) 15, 408 16, 20, 58» 3, 59 15; organ of 378 22-38" 15 ; object of 45 10; cf. Colour. Simple, bodies 45 19; objects 472 18; ratio 39 30 sqq.; (ἁπλῶς) 55° 9, 595 10, 20. Simultaneous perception 478 13 _ 564. ; cf. Coinstantaneous. Size of animals, cause of 66” 22. Slag 43° 10. Sleep 36% 14, 53” 11-58% 32, 58% 1- 64> 18 passim. Smell, sense of 38 20 sqq., 43 2, b 21 sqq., 44> 20, 45° 4, 47" 7; medium of 42” 26 sqq., 45° 7 sqq., 46° 14, 47° 7,9; object of 43" 3- 451; cf. Odour, Odorous ; organ of 38> 22 sqq., 449 28, » 4, 20sqq., 73° 26. Smoke 43% 21 sqq., 65? 25. Smoky ; cf. Fumid. Smooth things 37% 31, " 6, 60° 15 sqq. Snakes 75” 22. Solid bodies 42? 6. Soul 36% 1, 659 27, 70% 20, 77° 15; essence of 67> 143; parts or faculties of 49? 5, 50° 16, 548 12, 67> 17, 20, 25; the nutritive 54° 13, 74 1o sqq.; the sentient 50° 28, 67 20 sqq., 68» 2, 795 2. Sound 37% 10, 38» 20, 45» 22, 46° 2, 24, ἢ 5 sqq., 488 20 sqq. Source (apxn—of soul) 68” το, 69% 6, (of life) 78> 26. Sparrows 66” 11. ‘Spasms’ 79? 20. Species of sensibles 42 19, 43” 17, 45> 21 Sqq. 5 Opp. to genus 49 17. Specific 47” 24. Specifically 47” 13, 27. Speculative truth 378 2. Spirituous 57° 16, 61% 24. Spongy lung 70> 14, 75 22, ἢ 24, 78 13. Spontaneity 53” 24. Star-stricken 70 30. State, of a presentation 49 25, 51° 16, 24, » 3; bodily 77” 15, 18, Stimuli 47% 14, 21, 60 31, 63° 7, 648 16. Stomach 57” 11, 692 2, 70% 24. Stones 43% 15, 70% 33. Strattis 43” 30. Substance 65” 5, 69 30. Suffocation 717 31, » 13, 75% 12, 27, 76 29. Superficial parts of sense-organs 59° 7. Superficies 39% 31, 607 11. enperpostuon of colours 40 6 sqq., "161 Supra-human 53} 23. Sweet 42° 1 sqq., 47? 24-49% 21 passim; odour 43” Io, Swoon 55” 5 sqq., 56” 15. Tadpole 76° 6. Tangible 45% 10. Taste, sense of 36% 15, 39% 1, 418 3, 47° 73; organ of 39% 1; object of 41> 28, 42° 1; cf. Savour. Tasteless 41% 4, 43° II. Terrestrial ; cf. Land Animals. Testacea 43° 3, 66 21. Thorax 44° 25, 72 31, 78 14. Thought 50% 1 sqq., » 29 sqq., 52> 7 sqq.; cf. Intellect; object of 45° 16; cf. 378 2, 50% 12. Time 46% 29, » 1, 488 24 564. > 16, 50° 22; perception of 49” 28, 50% Timaeus 37” 11,15, 72” 6. Tin 43% 20. Tongue 76° 10. Tortoises 68 15, 75 28, 799 6. Touch, sense of 36? 13, 38” 30, 413 2, 3, 55° 7, 27; object of 41° 28, 55° 10; cf. Tangible ; organ of 48” 30, 55° 23. Transformation of words 46 6 5646. Translucency 388 14, 308 21, ἢ 8, 42> 29. Treelike 67” 1. Trees 678 Io. Tumours 79° 24. Unguents 60° 27. Unhealthy, Unwholesome 448 13, 17; cf. Disease, Morbid. Vacuum 71 2. Vapour 50% 10; cf. Evaporation, Exhalation. Vaporous exhalation 43 30. Veins 56” 1, 58 18, 74» 7. Violence, death due to 727 17, 74 17, 78 24, 79° 33. INDEX Violet 42° 24. Viscosity 418 25, 67° 8. Vision ; cf. Sight. Vital fire 78 τό. Vitality 79 4 Viviparous sails 75» 20. Volatilization 79> 31, 80% 15. Waking 54° 2 sqq. Warmth, natural 66” 32, 69> 70% 22, 74> 21, 809 17; Wasps 758 6. Waste matter 45% 19, 65 17, 66° 6, 79% 24, Ὁ 20; cf. Refuse, Ex- crement. Water 38° τό, 39" 21 sqq., 41° 3, 23, 25, ἢ 2,42 see 438 το, 46” 14, 475 7, 655 14, 70? 4. Water-animals 66% 11, ἢ 33, 700 1, 74? 25 sqq. or cd) cf. Heat. Water-snakes 75? 28. Watery 435 20; cf. 439 15, 66” 23, 67° I. Weight 45> 5, 12, 53” 2. Wet ; cf. Moisture, Humidity. Whales 76° 15 δα, White 39 18, 11. 428 τὸ 17. 47” 1, 30 564; 495 5 564. Will, control of 53 20, 21. Wind-pipe 71° 21, 73° 19, 76° 31, 33: Wine 57° 14, 60% 29. Wither 78> 28, 79» 2. Wood 438 2. Words 378 14, 52” 5. Yellow 428 22. Young, the very 50? 6; cf. 43> 6. Youth 36 14, 67” 10; ‘definition of 795 30. OXFORD PRINTED AT THE CLARENDON PRESS BY HORACE HART, M.A, PRINTER TO THE UNIVERSITY BIS soe ee BY ]. F. DOBSON PROFESSOR OF GREEK IN THE UNIVERSITY OF BRISTOL OXFORD AT THE CLARENDON PRESS 1014 OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS LONDON EDINBURGH GLASGOW NEW YORK TORONTO MELBOURNE ΒΟΜΒΑΥ HUMPHREY MILFORD M.A. PUBLISHER TO THE UNIVERSITY PRECACE THIs treatise has been rejected as spurious by practically all editors, one of the chief reasons being the confusion of the senses assigned to ἀρτηρία. It is sometimes ascribed to Theophrastus. Its author had certainly studied the Aristotelian Corpus, and analogies may be traced to the de Respiratione and some of the zoological treatises. The earliest attempt to elucidate its numerous difficulties was made by Daniel Furlan, who in 1605 appended a text with comments and a Latin translation to the edition of Theophrastus of which he and Adrian Turnebus were joint editors. He apologizes for his temerity in approaching this work, ‘quod Fulius Caesar Scaliger, vir extra com- munem ingeniorum aleam positus, frustra convertere et commentarits explanare conatus sit’. Jaeger, the latest editor, calls the author ‘a second Heraclitus’. The text, as given in Bekker’s edition, is often untrans- latable, and the Latin version in the same Corpus, by an anonymous author, is a free paraphrase, based in some cases on a different text. Its seeming fluency often conceals difficulties without explaining them. The emended text in the Didot edition is more intelligible, and the translation gives some help; but many passages remain in a hopeless state. It is to be regretted that the de Sfiritu was omitted by Barthélémy Saint-Hilaire from his translation of all Aristotle. Since this version was in proof, a new edition of the text has appeared by W. W. Jaeger (Teubner, 1913). The editor has taken from Furlan and others many useful con- jectures, and added some of his own. Though in some cases his corrections appear unnecessary, the new text is iv PREFACE so great an improvement on Bekker that it has seemed desirable to adapt this translation to the text of Jaeger’s edition. No amount of emendation will remove the incoherence of the work, which must be regarded rather as a collection of Problems than as a finished treatise. My best thanks are due to Mr. W. D. Ross, of Oriel College, for numerous suggestions and criticisms which have helped me greatly. I have also to thank Mr. R. W. Livingstone, of Corpus Christi College, Oxford, for his kindness in allowing me to collate the MS. which is the property of his College. 11 CONTENTS CHAPTER I. The breath, being of bodily nature, must be maintained by some method of nutrition. Nutriment may be supplied by the blood, which ultimately nourishes all parts of the body. In this case there must be a residue consequent on the process of digestion; how can it be excreted? Difficulties are involved whether we assume that the residue is finer or coarser than the nutriment. CHAPTER 2. Aristogenes supposes that the breath digests the air breathed into the lungs ; this is to assume that the breath is different from the outside air, and it may indeed be coarser. The digestion of the air is very rapid and must be caused by the bodily heat. Respiration extends only to the lungs; how then is air carried to the lower parts? Perhaps in the form of a kind of excrement. There is a difficulty in the case of non-respiratory creatures—but perhaps they are falsely so-called. Probably respiration of some sort is necessary to all, Aquatic animals must take in air with their food, since no air is contained in water. CHAPTER 3. Empedocles and Democritus considered the process of respiration but disregarded the purpose; others assume even the process as obvious. Its real purpose is refrigeration. The breath is uniformly distributed through the body, and causes nutrition of the lower parts and, apparently, of the bones, though in some parts we can trace no air-ducts. These parts may be compared to plants, which live and grow although they too have no air-ducts. CHAPTER 4. The three functions of the breath, respiration, pulsation, and assimi- lation of nutriment, are perceptible in different degrees by sense or reason. The motive principle of respiration is within, probably in the Soul. Nutrition is originated by respiration. Pulsation, though a function of breath, is not connected with respiration, for variations in respiration have no effect on the pulse. No rational purpose can be assigned to pulsation, whereas the purposes of the other two functions are obvious. It is an open question which of the three is actually earliest. vi CONTENTS CHAPTER 5. The breath is carried to the belly by a duct passing along the loins. We cannot determine how far this breath is akin to Soul. The rela- tions of the internal to the external air in non-respiring creatures. The warming and cooling of the internal air. The breath is not the finest of all substances. It cannot pass through sinew. Some characteristics of sinew and skin. Veins and ‘arteries’ connect with the intestines and the belly, and sinews and veins form connexions between the bones. CHAPTER 6. The transformation of blood into flesh. Sinews are nourished from the bones, or, perhaps more probably, bones from sinews. Mode of nutrition of flesh. Blood is not universally dispersed through the body in all animals. Nail is formed from sinew, and perhaps skin from flesh, by a hardening process. Difficulties connected with hard- and soft-shelled creatures suggest exceptions to the rule that the blood is the universal nutriment. CHAPTER 7. Bones have various functions—motion, support, covering, &c. All are well adapted for their purposes. Movable bones are connected by sinews, and those which have not to move are kept in place by sinews. CHAPTER 8. Physiological inquiry must be supplemented by the investigation of final causes. The purposes of bones, sinews, feet, and other parts are various, but all serve their proper ends: e.g. flying creatures are shaped in a way appropriate to flight. CHAPTER 9. The heat-principle active in our bodies produces different effects in different creatures, just as the effect of fire on different inanimate objects varies. Nature uses fire as an instrument and also as a material. Nature is an intelligent agent and varies the quality of the substance upon which the heat is to work, while the variations of the heat are only quantitative. We must reject the hypothesis of Empedocles, which would lead to the belief that there is no difference of quality between, e.g., the bones of various animals. The de SAiritu is found in the following MSS. :— (1) Z, Oxoniensis, 12th cent.; Corpus Christi College, Oxford—con- sidered by Bekker and Jaeger the most important. (2) Z PQ 85, an independent group (Jaeger, Introd., p. xxi). LI, Vaticanus 253, 14th cent. P, Vaticanus 1339, 12th or 13th cent. Q, Marcianus 200, 12th cent. #, Palatinus Vaticanus 162, 15th or 16th cent. DE SPIRITU Wuat is the mode of growth of the natural breath and 481 its mode of maintenance? For we see that it increases in volume and strength in accordance with both changes of age and the varying condition of the body. May we sup- pose that it increases as the other parts do, through the addition of some substance to it? Now it is nutriment that is thus added to living creatures; so that we must 5 consider the nature and origin of the nutriment in this case. Nutrition may result in either of two ways—by means of respiration, or, as in the case of the other parts of the body, by the digestive process consequent on the introduc- tion of the nutriment; and of the two the process by means of the nutriment! is perhaps the more likely ; for body is nourished by body, and the breath is of the nature of body. What then is the method? Clearly we must suppose τὸ that the breath is nourished by drawing and digesting nutriment from the vein-system, for the blood is the ulti- mate and universal nutriment. So the breath receives nutriment into the hot element as into its vessel and re- ceptacle.” The air® draws the nutriment and imparts the activity, and applying to itself the digestive power is the cause of its own growth and nutrition. Perhaps there is nothing absurd in this, but rather in 15 the proposition that the breath is originally derived from the nutriment ; for that which is akin to the soul, as the breath is, is purer—unless we were to say that the soul Jaeger’s supposition of a lacuna is then unnecessary. 3 ἀήρ is here identified with breath; contrast 481” 4 sg¢. * These words are curious in view of 4828 16 and other passages, where the breath is supposed to be for the sake of refrigerating the body. AR. Ὁ. 5. Β 481° 20 DE SPIRITU itself is a later product than the body, arising when the seeds are sorted out! and move towards the development of their nature. Again, if? there is some residue left from all nutriment, by what passage is it ejected in this case? It is not reason- able to suppose that it is by the process of exhalation, for this succeeds immediately to the inhalation.’ Clearly there remains only the explanation that it is through the ducts of the wind-pipe. The residue which is secreted from it must be either finer or coarser; in either case there is a grave difficulty ; ὅ if the breath is assumed to be the purest of all substances, how can the residue be finer than the breath? while if it is coarser we shall have to assume that there are certain ducts of larger size.° The assumption that we take in and expel the breath by the same ducts is again strange and unreasonable. Such then are the questions raised by the theory that the breath is maintained and increased by nutriment. Aristogenes supposes that the growth of the breath is due to respiration, the air being digested in the lungs; for the breath, he holds, is also a form of nutriment, and is distributed into the various vessels, and‘ the refuse is ejected again. This theory involves more difficulties, for what can cause this digestion? Apparently the breath digests itself, as it digests other things; but this is strange intrinsically, unless the breath is different from the external air. If it is different, perhaps the bodily warmth in it may cause digestion. Ὁ ie. from the μίγμα. Cf. de Cae/o, iil. 3054, of se Ss es * Reading εἴ re. * dprnpias—which seems to mean here ἡ τραχεῖα ἀρτηρία, the trachea ; but elsewhere in the treatise ἀρτηρίαι must mean air-ducts in general, vide infra, 482” 8. Adopting the reading which is assumed by the Latin translation : ϑ Here, perhaps, we should place 481° 5-8, ‘ However... not con- vincing ’. CHAPTER 2 481° 1 However, it may be reasonably maintained that the 5 breath ? is coarser than the outside air, since it is combined with the moisture from the vessels and from the solid parts in general; so that digestion will be a process towards corporeality ; but the theory that it is finer is not con- vincing. Moreover, the rapidity of its digestion is contrary to reason; for the exhalation follows immediately on the inhalation. What then is the agent which so quickly changes and modifies it? We must naturally suppose that it is the warmth of the body, and the evidence of sense supports this, for the air when exhaled is warm. Again, if the substance which is digested is in the lungs and the wind-pipe, the active warmth must also reside there: but the common view is that it is not so, but that the nutriment is evaporated by the motion of the breath.° It is still more astonishing if the breath in process of 15 digestion attracts the warmth to itself or receives it because some other agent sets it in motion ; moreover, on this theory it is not in itself the primary moving cause. Then again, respiration extends as far as the lungs only, as the followers of Aristogenes themselves state; but the natural breath is distributed throughout the whole body. If it is from the lungs® that the breath is distributed to all parts of the body, including those lower than the lungs, how can the process of its digestion be so rapid? This is more remarkable and involves a greater difficulty ; for the lungs® cannot distribute the air to the lower parts during the actual process of its digestion. And yet to some extent it would seem that this must be the case, if the digestion takes place in the lungs, and the lower parts also are affected by the respiration. - 1 Lines 5-8 seem to be out of place: they should, perhaps, come at 925. it must refer to the air, which is unintelligible. ’ Here, perhaps, we should add lines 25-26 (/z/rva): ‘But the con- clusion... contact’. 5 I take τούτου (1. 19), τοῦτο (1. 22), to refer to the lungs. B2 481° DE SPIRITU 25 | But the conclusion in this case is still more remarkable and important—namely that the digestion is effected, as it were, entirely by transit and contact. This also is unreasonable, and still more untenable,” since it assumes that the same account can be given of the nutriment and the excretions; while if we assume that digestion is effected by any of the other internal parts,

[480b.30] the objections already stated will apply: unless we were to assume that excrement is not formed from all nutriment, 482 nor in all animals, any more than in plants, for we cannot find it in every one of the bodily parts, or even if we do, at least not in all animals. But according to this view the vessels grow just like the other parts, and as they become broadened and distended, 5 the volume of air which flows in and out is increased: and if there must inevitably be some air contained in them, the actual question which we are now asking,® ‘What is the air which naturally exists in them ; and how does this increase under healthy conditions?’ will be obvious from the preceding statement. How is the natural breath nourished and developed in the case of creatures which have not respiration? For in their case the nutriment can no longer come from without. If in the former case it was from forces within, and from the common nutriment of the body, it is reasonable to say 10 that the same is true in their case also, for similar effects come in like manner from the same causes—unless really in the case of these creatures too it is from without, like their perception of smell; but then they must have some process similar to respiration.® Under this head we might raise the question whether such creatures can truly be called non-respiratory—point- ing to this argument and also to the way in which they 15 take in nutriment ; for we should say that they must draw This seems to be out of place. Cf. supra, 1. 14. i.e. that the nutriment of the lower parts is really a περίττωμα. ὃ Keeping οὕτως ye, with Z. 1 2 3 CHAPTER 2 482° in some breath at the same time; and we should further urge that they must respire for the sake of refrigeration, which they must require just as other creatures do. But if in their case the refrigeration takes place through the diaphragm, it is clear that the entry of the air must also be by the same passage ; so that there is some process similar to respiration. But it cannot be determined how or by what agency the air is drawn in; or if there is a drawing in, how the entry takes place—unless, indeed, it is spontaneous. This 20 is a subject for separate investigation. But how is the natural breath nourished and increased in the case of creatures that live in the water? Apart from their inability to respire, we say further that air cannot exist in water: so it only remains to say that in their case it is by means of the food: and so either all creatures are not uniform in their methods, or else in the case of the others also! it is by means of the food. Such are the 25 three possible theories, of which one must be right. So much, then, as regards the nutrition and growth of the breath. 3 With regard to respiration, some philosophers—such as Empedocles and Democritus—do not deal with its purpose, but only describe the process; others do not even deal 30 with the process at all, but assume it as obvious. But we ought further to make it quite clear whether its purpose is refrigeration. For if the bodily heat is inherent in the upper parts, it follows that the lower parts would have ne need of refrigeration: but the heat is not in the upper parts only, for as a matter of fact the innate breath per- vades the whole body, and its origin is from the lungs. The inspired breath also is thought to be distributed

[480b.35] uniformly over all parts, so that it remains to be proved that this is not the case.° Again, it is strange if the lower parts do not require Omitting ra ἔνυγρα 925. Cf. the Latin translation. i.e. that the lower parts require no refrigeration. orn 482” 20 DE SPIRITU some motive force and, as it were, some nutriment. And! it is strange that it should no longer be for the sake of refrigeration, if it does pervade the whole. Further, the process of the breath’s distribution in general is imperceptible, and so is its speed; and again, the matter of its counter-flow, if, as assumed, it is from all parts, is remarkable, unless it flows back from the most remote parts in some different way, while in its proper and primary sense the action takes place from the regions about the heart. In many instances such a want of symmetry in functions and faculties may be observed. However, it is at any rate? strange if breath is dis- tributed even into the bones—for they say that this is the case, and that it passes there from the air-ducts. Therefore, as I have shown, we must consider the respiration—its pur- pose, and the parts which it affects, and how it affects them. Again, it appears 5 that nutriment is not carried by the air- ducts to all parts, for instance to the vessels themselves and certain other parts; but nevertheless plants, which have not air-ducts, live and receive nourishment. This question belongs rather to a treatise on methods of nutrition. Whereas there are three motions belonging tc the breath 4 in the windpipe—respiration, pulsation, and a third which introduces and assimilates the nutriment—we must define how and where and for what purpose each takes place. Of these, the motion of the pulse is perceptible by the senses wherever we touch the body. That of the respira- tion is perceptible up to a certain point, but is recognized in the majority of parts by a reasoning process. That of nutrition is in practically all parts determinable by reason- ing, but by sense in so far as it can be observed from its results. Now clearly the respiration has its motive principle from the inward parts, whether we ought to call this principle 1 Understand (ἄτοπον εἰ) οὐκέτι... εἴη, rejecting Jaeger’s emendation CHAPTER 4 482° a power of the soul, the soul, or some other combination of bodies which through their agency causes this attraction ; and the nutritive faculty would seem to be caused by the 2; respiration, for the respiration corresponds to it, and is in reality similar to it. And to discover whether the whole body is not equable! with regard to the time taken by such motion, or whether there is no difference as to its simultaneity, we must consider all the parts. The pulse is something peculiar and distinct from the other motions and in some respects may be seen to be contingent, assuming that when there is an excess of 30 warmth in a fluid, that fluid which is evaporated must set up a pulsation owing to the air being intercepted in the interior, and pulsation must arise in the originating part and in the earliest stage, since it is inborn in the earliest parts. For it arises firstly and in the greatest degree in the heart, and thence extends to the other parts. Perhaps this must be an inseparable consequence of the essential 35 nature underlying the living creature, which is manifested when the creature is in a condition of activity. That the pulse has no connexion with the respiration is shown by the following indication—whether one breathes 483° quickly or regularly, violently or gently,? the pulse remains the same and unchanged, but it becomes irregular and spasmodic owing to certain bodily affections and in con- sequence of fear, hope, and anguish affecting the soul. Next we ought to consider whether the pulse occurs also 5 in the arteries and with the same rhythm and regularity.’ This does not appear to be so in the case of parts widely separated, and, as has been noted, it seems to serve no purpose whatsoever. For, on the other hand, the respiration and reception of food, whether they are regarded as quite independent or τὸ as correlated, clearly exist for a purpose, and admit of rational explanation. * There is no passage in the present treatise to which these words can refer. 483° DE SPIRITU And of the three, we may reasonably say that the pulsatory and respiratory motions are prior to the other, for nutrition assumes their pre-existence. Or is this not so? for respiration begins when the young is separated from the mother ; the reception of nutriment, and nutrition, both while the embryo is forming and after it is formed; but the pulsation at the earliest stage, as soon as the heart 15 begins to form, as is evident in the case of eggs. So the pulse comes first, and resembles an activity and not an in- terception of the breath, unless that also can conduce towards its activity. They say that the breath which is respired is carried 5 into the belly, not through the gullet—that is impossible— 20 but there is a duct along the loins through which the breath is carried by the respiration from the trachea into the belly and out again: and this can be perceived by the sense. The question of this perception raises a difficulty: for if the windpipe alone has perception, does it perceive by means of the wind which passes through it, or by its bulk 25 or by its bodily constitution? Or if the air comes first below soul, may it perceive by means of this air which is superior and prior in origin ? What then is the soul? They make it out to be a. potentiality which is the cause of such a motion as this. Or is it clear that you will not be right in impugning those who say it is the rational and spirited faculty? for they too refer to these as potentialities. 30 But if the soul resides in this air, the air is at any rate a neutral substance. Surely, if it becomes animate or becomes soul, it suffers some change and alteration, and so naturally moves towards what is akin to it, and like erows by the addition of like. Or is it otherwise? for it may be contended that the air is not the whole of soul but is something which contributes to this potentiality or 35 in this sense makes it,! and that which has made it is its principle and foundation. | . or , ~ CHAPTER 5 In the case of non-respiring creatures,! where the internal air is not mixed with the external—or is this not the case, is it rather mixed in some other way than by respiration ?— what is the difference between the air in the air-duct and the outside air? It is reasonable—perhaps inevitable—to suppose that the former surpasses the latter in fineness. Again, is it warm by its inherent nature or by the influence of something else? For it seems that the inner air is just like the outer, but it is helped? by the cooling. But which is really the case? for when outside it is soft, but when enclosed the air becomes breath, being as it were condensed and in some manner distributed through the vessels. Or must it be mixed in some way, when it moves about in the fluids, and among the solid particles of the body? It is not, therefore, the finest of substances, if it is mixed. We may, however, reasonably expect that the substance which is first capable of receiving soul should be the finest, unless, indeed, soul is something such as has been described, i.e. something not pure nor unmixed: and® that the air-duct should be capable of receiving the breath, while the sinew is not. There is this difference too, that the sinew is tensible, but the air-duct is easily broken, just like a vein. The skin contains veins, sinews, and air-ducts—veins because when pricked it exudes blood, sinews because it is elastic, air-ducts because air is breathed through it—for only an air-duct can admit air. The veins must have pores in which * resides the bodily heat which heats the blood as if in a caldron; for it is not 1 4831. Substituting a dash for the full stop after ἔξω (W. 1). R.). This seems to be the only way of translating the words as they stand. The relative use of ἵνα is found occasionally in Attic writers. In Bonitz’ Index the only instances given are ἵνα περ, Problems 876 33, and ἵνα in a quotation from Euripides, Afeforic 1371 32 and Prod. 91714; but as examples occur sporadically from the time of Homer to that of Lucian, the construction must at any rate have been possible to the author of the de Spirc7u. 2 Apparently an echo of de Resp. 4740 24, where κατάψυξις ‘helps’ ° τὴν (δ᾽) ἀρτηρίαν. So, perhaps, the Latin translation. * Reading ἐν vis. 483 5 ~ _ 483° DE SPIRITU hot by nature, but is diffused like molten metals. [! For this reason too the air-duct becomes hardened, and has moisture both in itself and in the coats which surround its hollow passage."] “ΤῈ is also proved both by dissection and by the fact that the veins and air-ducts, which apparently conduct the 25 nutriment, connect with the intestines and the belly. From the veins the nutriment is distributed to the flesh —not sideways from the veins but out at their mouths, as it were through pipes. For fine veins run sideways ® from 30 the great vein and the windpipe along each rib, and a vein and an air-duct always run side by side. The sinews and veins form the connexion between the bones, joining them with the centre of the body, and also form the meeting-place® between the head and the body, through which fishes receive nutriment and breathe; if 35 they did not respire, they would die immediately on being taken out of the water. 484° But it is plain even from observations of sense that the veins and air-ducts connect with each other; but this would not occur if the moisture did not require breath and the breath moisture,—because there is warmth both in sinew, in air-duct, and in vein, and that which is in the sinew is s hottest and most similar to that of the veins. Now the heat seems unsuited to the space where the breath is located, especially with a view to refrigeration: but if the animal produces and as it were re-kindles the heat by heat from without, then there may well be heat there. Besides this, permanence is in a sense natural to all things which have warmth, provided that nothing resists or cools it ;° 10 for that all things require refrigeration is practically proved by the fact that the blood retains its heat in the veins and as it were shelters it there; so when the blood has flowed * Here again there seems to be a dislocation, for it is not clear what is proved by dissection. * Cf. the account of the veins in H. A. 51329. ΓΤ, and S. ‘ The sutures of the skull’, which is absurd; Lat. trans. ‘magnum Capitis os’, CHAPTER 5 4845 out it loses its heat, and the creature dies, through the liver having no air-duct.! 6 Does the seed pass through the air-duct? Isits passage due also to pressure, and does this take place only in 15 process of emission?? Through this we have evidence of the transformation of the blood into flesh—through the fact that the sinews are nourished from the bones; for they join the bones together. Or is this not true? For sinew is found in the heart, and sinews are attached to the bones: but those in the heart do not connect with anything else, but they end in the flesh. Or does this amount to nothing, and would those which connect the bones be nourished from the bones? But we might say, that rather 20 the bones themselves get their nutriment from the sinew. For this too is strange—since the bone is dry by nature and has no ducts for fluid;? while the nutriment is fluid. But we must consider first, if the nutriment of the sinews is from the bones, what is the nutriment of the bone. Do the ducts carry it both from the veins and from the air- duct into the bone itself? In many parts these ducts 25 are visible, particularly those leading to the spine, and those leading from the bones are continuous, e.g. in the case of the ribs; but how do we suppose that these ducts lead from the belly, and how does the drawing of the nutriment take place Ὁ Surely most bones are without cartilage like the spine, in no way adapted to motion. Or are they designed to form connexions?® And similarly, if bone is nourished from 30 sinew, we must know the means by which sinew is nourished. We say that it is from the fluid surrounding the sinew, which is of a glutinous nature: but we must determine 1 | take this obscure passage to mean that the θερμόν in the body is maintained by the warmth of the breath, the hot blood passing to the liver from the veins. The liver cannot be kept warm otherwise, because it has no air-duct to admit the breath to it: so when the venous blood is cooled, the liver grows cold. 2 There seems to be no connexion between this and what has gone before ; we must assume a lacuna. 6. The sentence is out of place here. It seems rather to belong to the next chapter, on the purposes for which the bones exist. 484° DE SPIRITU whence and how this arises. To say that the flesh is nourished from vein and air-duct, on the ground that blood comes from any point where you prick it, is false in the 35 case of the other!’ animals, e.g. birds, snakes, and fishes, and oviparous creatures in general. The universal dis- persion of the blood is a peculiarity of creatures with a large blood-supply: for e.g. even when a small bird’s breast is cut, not blood but serum flows. Empedocles says that nail is formed from sinew by a 484” hardening process. Is the same true of skin in relation to flesh ? But how can hard and soft-shelled creatures get their nutriment from outside? On the contrary it seems that they get it from inside rather than out. Again, how and 5 by what course does the passage of foods from the belly take place, and again their return into the form of flesh, unaccountable as it is? For this process seems extra- ordinary and absolutely impossible. Do different things, then, have different nutriment, not all things being nourished by the blood except indirectly ? We must then consider the nature of bone, whether it 7 10 exists with a view to motion or to support, or covering and surrounding, and further, whether some bones are as it were originators of motion, like the axis of the uni- verse.” By motion I mean, e.g. that of the foot, the hand, the leg, or the elbow, both the bending motion and motion from place to place—for the latter cannot take place either without the bending, and usually the supporting functions belong to these same bones. And by covering and sur- 1; rounding I mean as e.g. the bones in the head surround the brain; and those who make the marrow the originator Σ The motion of the circumference presupposes the fixity of the axis, and he is thinking of the spine, which can originate motion while itself unmoved. Cf. the account of the yiyyAupos in de AM. iil. 10. For πόλος = axis, cf. Plato, Zim. 40 B, quoted in de Caelo, 239” 30. Hesychius mentions πόλος = the crown of the head, which may be due to a misunderstanding of the present passage. CHAPTER 7 484° of motion treat the bones as primarily meant to protect it.! The ribs are for the purpose of locking together; the originator of motion, itself immovable, is the spine, from which spring the ribs for the purpose of locking the body - together : for there must be something of this kind, since everything that is in motion depends on something that is in a state of rest. At the same time a final cause must exist—under which head some class the originator of motion; i.e. the spinal marrow and the brain. Besides these there are others which are at a joining ?and whose purpose is locking together, e.g. the collar-bone, which perhaps is named the ‘key-bone’ from its functions. Every one is well adapted for its purpose, for there could be no flexion either of whole or parts, if the parts were not such as they are: e.g. the spine, foot, and elbow: for the bending of the elbow must be inwards to serve our purpose. Similarly the bending of the foot and the other parts must be such as it is. All exist for a purpose, and so do the smaller bones contained in these larger ones— e.g. the radius in the fore-arm to enable us to twist the fore-arm and the hand; for we should not be able to turn 30 the palm down or up nor lift nor bend the feet if there were not the two radii? which are used in these motions. Similarly we must investigate the other details, e. g. whether the motion of the neck is due to only one bone or more. Also we must examine all that are for the purpose of gripping or knitting together, e.g. the patella over the knee; and why other parts have no such bone. Now all parts which are capable of motion are connected 35 with sinews—and perhaps those concerned with action in a positive way are especially so-—thus we find sinews in the elbow, the legs, the hands, and the feet; the other sinews are for the purpose of fastening together all those bones which require fastening ; for perhaps some, e.g. the fe) to © CL Plato, 77m, 758} 2 Reading ἐπὶ συναφῆς. a πρᾶξις, an action potentially ‘moral’, as opposed to κινήσεις which are involuntary, or connote no ‘moral’ impulse at all. 485° en 10 20 DE SPIRITU spine, have little or no function except that of bending,! for the substance which connects the vertebrae is a serum or mucous fluid; others are bound together by sinews— thus we find sinews in the joints of the limbs. The best description of everything may be obtained by 8 an investigation like the present; but we must adequately investigate the final causes. We must not suppose that the bones are for the sake of movement; that is rather the purpose of the sinews or what corresponds to them, viz. the immediate receptacle of the breath which causes motion, since even the belly moves and the heart has sinews—but only some, not all parts have bones: every part must have sinews appropriate for performing such motion or for® (performing it well.) For the cuttle-fish walks little and walks badly. We must take as a starting- point the fact that all animals have different organs for different purposes with a view to the peculiar motion of each, e.g. terrestrial animals have feet—those that are upright having two; others which move altogether upon the earth, the material of whose bodies is more earthy and colder, have several. Some creatures again may be entirely without feet,‘ for it is possible for them under these conditions to be moved only by external force. Similarly, flying creatures have wings, and their shape is appropriate to their nature. The parts differ in proportion as they are to fly faster or slower. They have feet for the purpose of seeking food and to enable them to stand; bats are an exception ; as they cannot use their feet, they get their food in the air, and do not need to rest for the purpose; for they certainly do not need to do so for any other reason.® Ὁ The hard-shelled aquatic animals have feet on account 83. There is a lacuna in the MSS. which has not been satisfactorily filled. My conj. τὸ (ed) is not quite suitable, but is suggested by κακῶς of foll. line. Didot reads τὸ (βαδίζειν). An. 714” 10-13, Hist. An, 48723. Bats do not need to rest, because animals with bad feet usually have good wings, 2:51. An. 487 26. CHAPTER 8 4855 of their weight; thus they are enabled to move from place to place: all that concerns their other needs is as ordered by the individual requirements of each, even if the principle is not clear—e.g. why many-footed creatures are the slowest, and yet quadrupeds are swifter than bipeds. Is 25 it because the whole of their body is on the ground or because they are naturally cold and hard to move, or for some other reason ? 9 We cannot agree with those who say that it is not the heat-principle which is active in bodies, or that fire has only one kind of motion and one power—the power to cleave. For in the case of inanimate things the action of 30 fire is not universally! the same on all—some it condenses, others it rarefies; some it dissolves, others it hardens; and 80 we must suppose that in the case of animate creatures the same results are found, and we must investigate the fire of nature by comparing her processes to those of an art; for different results are achieved by fire in the work of the goldsmith, the coppersmith, the carpenter, and the cook— 35 though, perhaps, it is truer to say that the arts themselves 485° achieve these different results, for that by using fire as an instrument they soften, liquefy, and desiccate substances, and some they temper. Individual natures work in the same way, and so they differ one from another; so that it is ridiculous to judge by externals; for whether we regard the heat as separating or refining, or whatever the effect of warming or burning is, 5 the results will be different according to the different natures of the agencies which employ it. But while the crafts use the fire merely as an instrument, nature uses it as a material as well. Certainly no difficulty is involved in this; but rather it is remarkable that nature, who employs the instrument, is herself an intelligent agent, who will assign to objects their proper symmetry together with the visible effects of her action: for this is no longer a function either of fire or of 10 breath, so it is remarkable that we should find such 485" 18 20 DE SPIRITU a faculty combined with these two bodies. Again, with regard to soul we find the same cause of wonder, for it must be assumed in the functions of these two, and there- fore there is some sense in referring to the same agent — either generally or to some particular creative part—the fact that its motion always operates ' in the same way ; for nature, from which they are generated, is always constant. But now what variation can there be in individual heat, whether we regard it as an instrument or material, or both ἢ The variations in fire are simply quantitative ; but this is practically a question of whether it is mixed with other substances or unmixed, for the purer substance has the proper qualities of its kind in a higher degree. The same statement applies in the case of all other simple things; for whereas there is a difference between the bone and flesh of a horse and those of an ox,? this must be the case either because they are produced from different materials, or because the materials are used differently. Now if they are different, what are the distinctive character- istics of each of the simple things and what is . . .? for it is these that we are secking. But if they are the same in nature, they may be different in their proportions: for one or the other must be the scase—as holds good with other things—for the con- sistencies of wine and honey are different on account of the difference of substance; difference in wine itself, if there is any, is a matter of proportion. And so Empedocles® stated the nature of bone too simply; for, on the supposition that all bones follow the same proportion in the mixture of elements, the bones of a lion, a horse, and a man ought to be indistinguishable ; whereas they actually differ in hardness and_ softness, density, and other qualities. Similarly * with the flesh and other parts of the body. Further, the various parts in the same creature differ in density and rarity, and in other qualities, so that the cf. Meteor. 339” 34, 365% 26. * Reading a colon after ἄλλοις. CHAPTER 9 485° blending of their constituents cannot be identical; for, granted that coarseness and fineness, greatness and small- ness are quantitative differences, hardness, density, and their opposites certainly depend on the qualitative nature 35 of the mixing. But those who give this account of it must know how the creative element can vary, by excess or 4865 deficiency, by being in isolation or in combination or heated in something else, like food that is boiled or baked,—which last is perhaps the true explanation ; for in the process of mixing it produces the effect designed by nature. So I suppose we must give the same account of flesh ; 486° for the variations are the same; and practically the same observations apply to the veins and air-ducts and the rest ; so that, in conclusion, either the proportion observed in their mixture is not constant, or the definitions must not be stated in terms of hardness, density, and their opposites. AR. Ὁ. 5. C INDEX Air, affinity of to Soul, 483° 26 ; warm when expired, 481 12; entry of, 482% 18 ; digests itself, 481715 Air-ducts or ‘Arteries’, 482» 8, 11, 483° 17, °18, >25, 30, 4845 1-5, “34. ee 30. = artery (?), 483° 5, "22, 4845 14, 334. Aquatic animals, 4825 21, 4858 21. Aristogenes, 4815 28, 18. Bats, 48519. Belly, 483922, >25, 484928, 48528. Birds, 484° 35, 485% 16. Blood, the ultimate nutriment, 481% 12, 484° 16. Bones, nutriment of, Ch. 6; pur- pose of, Ch. 7 ; difference of, in man and various animals, 485? 20, 528; 483>31. Brain, 484? 16, Dar. Breath, 4814 1, 310, 429, >14, 482 33, 927, 11. 483% 18, © 13, 18, 4845 3, 95, 485° 7. Bronchia, 483% 22. Carpenter, 485% 35. Cartilage, parts without, 4844 29, Collar-bone, 484) 22. Cook, 485% 35. Copper-smith, 485° 35. Counterflow (of breath), 482» 3. Cuttle-fish, 485% Io. Democritus, 482% 30. Diaphragm, 4828 17. Difference, qualitative and quan- titative, examples of, 485» 25, 033: Digestion, 4819 7, 2, ὕ2ο, >26. Dissection, 483° 24. Elbow, 484° 25. Embryo, 483° 13. Empedocles, 482% 29, 485> 26. Excrement, 4814 19, 28, 4824 2. AR. Ὁ. 8, 4845 38, Expiration, 481821 ; the cause of pulsation, 482 31. Fire, various functions of, 485% 35 ; quantitative difference in, 485> 17. Fish, method of breathing of, 483? 34; blood of, 484 36. Flesh, differences of in various animals, 485? 20. Flight, birds of swift, 485217. Foot, 48425, 485% 13 sgg. Footless creatures, 485° 15. Goldsmith, 485% 24. Gullet, 483% 20. Hard-shelled creatures, 484? 2, ASG” 21, Head, junction of, with the body, 483? 33. Heart, 4826, "33, 485°8. Heat, bodily, 481214, "4, >13 599, 483” 19, 485% 28. Honey, differences in, 485» 25. Ichor (serum), 484% 38, 48571. Interception of breath, 482” 31, 82. 17. Intestine, 483" 24. Liver, the, has no_air-duct, 484° 12. Loins, 483? 21. Lungs, 481 30, 518, 482% 34. Many - footed creatures slowly, 485% 25. Marrow, 48416; (Spinal), 484» 21: Miypa, the, 481% 19. move Nature is rational, 485» 5-8. Neck, 484" 32. Non-respiratory creatures, 4828 8, 4830 1. Nutriment and nutrition, 481° 9, a27,>28,>30; of bones, 484 23, 431; the blood, 481212, 4847; passes through arteries, 482 10; INDEX of the breath, 482 27 ; of sinews, 484° 16 ; organs indirectly con- nected with, 485718. Patella, the, 484 33. Pipes, 483 28. Polypus, the, walks badly, 485° Io. Pulse, the, a function of the breath, 48229, 32; prior to other functions, 483% 15; irregu- larity of, 483 3. Quadrupeds are quicker than bipeds, 485° 25. Radius, the, 484? 28. Refrigeration, 4827 16, 483" 6. Respiration— extends to the lungs, 481518; its purpose, 482 28- 31; a function of Soul, 482 22 ; influences the lower parts of the body, 481» 24. Respiratory creatures, 483° 12. Ribs, 483 30, 484» 17. Semen, the, 4848 14. Sinews, Ch. 6, 483° 15, 48445, Skin, 483" 15, 484" 1. Smell, 482% 12. Soft-shelled creatures, 484” 2. Soul, 483 26-27, P11, 482 22. Spine, 4847 26, 829, »25. Tibia, 484» 31. Trachea: see Air-ducts. Veins, 483” 19, 25, "30. Vessels, increase in size of, 4825 3. Viscous fluid, 484 38, 4854 1. Water, contains no air, 482 23. Wine, differences in, 48525. Wings, 485% 16. as er ae a wee e407) 5671910 Vos: π᾿ Aristotle. 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