Greco-Christian stream·Corpus Aristotelicum (Complete Works of Aristotle)·Progression of Animals (De Incessu Animalium)

Source context

Theme

locomotive analysis of animal bodies and the soul-principles directing directed movement

Steiner

not engaged in the GA corpus

Cross-tradition

• Vedanta / Samkhya — prana and the motor-organs (karmendriyas)Cross-tradition congruence exists between Aristotle's analysis of the soul as first principle of animal self-locomotion and the Samkhya-Vedantic mapping of prana through the five karmendriyas as the causal basis of directed bodily movement.
• Neoplatonism — Plotinus on the soul's relation to locomotion (Enneads IV.4)Cross-tradition congruence exists between Aristotle's account of the unmoved mover within the animal as origin of local motion and Plotinus's treatment in Enneads IV.4 of the soul-principle that initiates movement without itself being spatially displaced.

Progression of Animals

Περὶ Ζῴων Πορείας · De Incessu Animalium · biology

[704a.1] scientific investigation of nature, that is we must take for granted principles of this universal character which appear

[704a.15] in all Nature’s work. Of these one is that Nature creates nothing without a purpose, but always the best possible in each kind of living creature by reference to its essential constitution. Accordingly if one way is better than another that is the way of Nature! Next we must take for granted the different species of dimensions? which inhere in various

[704a.20] things; of these there are three pairs of two each, superior and inferior, before and behind, to the right and to the left. Further we must assume that the originals of movements in place are thrusts and pulls.* (These are the essential place- movements, it is only accidentally that what is carried by

[705a.1] another is moved; it is not thought to move itself, but to be moved by something else.*) in order. Now of animals which change their position some move

[705a.5] with the whole body at once, for example jumping animals, others move one part® first and then the other, for example walking (and running) animals. In both these changes the moving creature always changes its position by pressing against what lies below it. Accordingly if what is below gives way ® too quickly for that which is moving upon it to τὸ ) Secondary Adaptation, 7149 11, cf. }. 44. 6888 24. ) Utility: (2) for preservation in environment, 710% 27, 713” 28, cf. P. A. 6934; (6) of mechanical structure, 71021, 71132, 713} 20, cf. P. A. 694" 13. (7) Homology of organs and members, 709” 30, 714 3, et passim (cf. P; Ae 1. ch. 1). (8) Serial Homology, 707° 2. (9) Analogy between the parts and works of Nature, 705? 5. (10) Sovereignty, the principle of subordination running through Creation (Po/. 1254 31: (a) man’s superiority to the rest of the animal kingdom, cf. P. A. 656*7 ; (4) of the right to the left, of upper to lower, 706° 1ο et seq., cf. P. A. 6865 2: ; (c) the ‘gradual scale’ from lifeless things to the highest animate beings, cf. P. A. 681% 12. 1 Leg. ra κατὰ φύσιν Z, cf. Nic. Eth. 1099” 23 (Bywater). 284>6; Met. 101625; Plato, Leges, 817 E, &c. For the application to organisms cf. H. A. 49317, 4945 20; P. A. 669» 20, . 9 CE Phys. 243? 19. 5 Leg. xara μέρος Z, cf. inf: 708% 28. ® Cf. de Motu, 698" 15, &c, 705° DE INCESSU lean against it, or if it affords no resistance at all to what is moving, the latter can of itself effect no movement upon it. For an animal which jumps makes its jump both by leaning against its own upper part! and also against what is

[705a.15] beneath its feet; for at the joints the parts do in a sense lean upon one another, and in general that which pushes down leans upon what is pushed down. That is why athletes jump further with weights? in their hands than without, and runners run faster if they swing their arms; there is in extending the arms a kind of leaning against the hands and wrists. In all cases then that which moves

[705a.20] makes its change of position by the use of at least two parts of the body; one part so to speak squeezes, the other is squeezed ; for the part that is still is squeezed as it has to carry the weight, the part that is lifted strains against that which carries the weight. It follows then that nothing without parts® can move itself in this way, for it has not in a5 it* the distinction of the part which is passive ὅ and that which is active. Again, the boundaries® by which living beings are 4 naturally determined are six in number, superior and inferior, before and behind, right and left. Of these all living beings have a superior and an inferior part; for superior

[705a.30] and inferior is in plants too, not only in animals. And this distinction is one of function, not merely of position relatively to our earth and the sky above our heads. The 1 Leg. αὐτὸ UF Mich.; cf. A. A. 56798, infra, 7098. It is most remarkable that A. nowhere refers in this treatise to the vertebrae of the back, though they are presupposed here and certainly in his discus- τὸ σῶμα : Galen, de Usu Part. xii. 10. Prof. Platt (7. of Phié. xxxii. 63) * Pieces of wood or metal, shaped either as half disks or like our dumb-bells, used by Greek athletes to give the body additional momentum in the long-jump (cf. Prod. 88193; Mic. Eth. 112331). They are illustrated in Dubois-Villeneuve, 252. ἃ ?Etude des Vases antiques, Plate xvi. ® PSU and Mich. apedés, viz. without limbs ; but cf. στα, line 20; de Motu, 702” 31 (note) ; zafra, 70522. Γ' read ἀσκελές. * Leg. αὑτῷ Z. (sic). ° Cf. de Motu, 702% 11 (note). ° Cf. de Motu, 70318 (note). διάστασις might almost be turned by ‘dimension ’, but A. uses it only of body (a line is defined by Proclus, principle of length, ‘right’ of breadth, and ‘front’ of depth. ANIMALIUM 4 705° superior is that from which flows in each kind the distribution of nutriment and the process of growth; the inferior is that 705” to which the process flows and in which it ends. One. is a starting-point, the other an end, and the starting-point is the superior. And yet it might be thought? that in the case of plants at least the inferior is rather the appropriate starting-point, for in them the superior and inferior are in position other than in animals.? Still they are similarly 5 situated from the point of view of function, though not in their position relatively to the universe. The roots are the superior part ὃ of a plant, for from them the nutriment * is distributed to the growing members, and a plant takes it with its roots as an animal does with its mouth.® Things that are not only alive but are animals have both a front and a back, because they all have sense,® and front and back are distinguished by reference to sense.? The front is the part in which sense is innate, and whence each thing gets its sensations, the opposite parts are the back. All animals which partake not only in sense, but are able of themselves to make a change of place,® have a further distinction of left and right besides those already enumerated; like the former these are distinctions of function and not of position. The right® is that from which change of position ~ Lal 5 but of the firmament (777. 90 A). Among animals Testacea are inverted like plants (P. A. 683” 20); Molluscs (Cephalopods) have no superior and inferior (6. “4. 74133), cf. zzfra, 7061. Linnaeus said ‘Planta est animal inversum’; Bacon (JV. Ὁ. ii. 27) ‘homo sit tanquam planta inversa’. P. A. 650* 20, 656% το. * Cf. de Gen. et Corr. 335%13; G.A. 76212. ® Cf. de Anim. 4131; Parv. Nat. 46723; P.A. 666° 34; G.A. 73154; Met. 980% 28. : 8 Sensation (de Anim. 414°3; Parv. Nat. 4540 25; P.A. 653" 22) and movement in Place (Pol. 1290" 26) are the proper characteristics of animals (PAys. 26534). Some of the Testacea (e.g. mussels) are almost sedentary, and are therefore akin to both plants and animals (H. A. 4876; P.A. 6834; G. 4. 7310 8). Cf. what is said of Sponges, P.A. 681% 11, and of Ascidians, 681426. Contrast de Cae/o, 284” 32. ® Cf. de Caelo, 285% 25, © 16. , 20 25 30

[706a.1] naturally begins, the opposite which naturally depends upon this is the left. This distinction (of right and left) is more articulate and detailed in some than in others. For animals which make the aforesaid change (of place) by the help of organized parts (I mean feet for example, or wings or similar organs) have the left and right distinguished in greater detail, while those which are not differentiated into such parts, but make the differentiation’ in the body itself and so progress, like some footless animals (for example snakes and caterpillars after their kind, and besides what men call earth-worms 2), all these have the distinction spoken of, although it is not made so manifest to us. That the beginning of movement is on the right ® is indicated by the fact that all men carry burdens on the left * shoulder; in this way they set free the side which initiates movement and enable the side which bears the weight to be moved. And so men hop easier on the left leg; for the nature of the right is to initiate move- ment, that of the left to be moved. The burden then must rest on the side which is to be moved, not on that which is going to cause movement, and if it be set on the moving side, which is the original of movement, it will either not be moved at all or with more labour. Another indication that the right is the source of movement is the way we put our feet forward; all men lead off with the left, and after standing still prefer to put the left foot forward, unless something happens to prevent it. The reason is that their 1 Viz. by undulations, cf. 2fra, 707° 7. ? Lit. earth-entrails. his left leg first, the right being the original of motion (ἀρχὴ κινήσεως). It is strange that A. nowhere considers the effect of the bilateral structure in this connexion ; since the determining cause seems to be the develop- ment of the right hand and arm; in quadrupeds it would follow naturally that the near hind should move first (and so in fact is the tendency in most horses), but 27fra, 712% 25, he says that the off fore moves first, and that strictly should correspond to man’s right hand. * Many curious observations might be made. Beginners in skating exhibit a painful tendency to strike off with the left (706% 5); fencing and boxing seem adverse to A.’s doctrine. In Testacea (e.g. Snails) A. says the spiral runs from left to right; their movement being from the spiral is from right to left, accordingly they carry their shell on the right, contrary to the usual position of a burden (cf. 7#fra, 706% 13).

[706a.4] ANIMALIUM movement comes from the leg they step off, not from the one put forward. Again, men guard themselves with their right. And this is the reason why the right is the same in all, for that from which motion begins is the same for all, and has its natural position in the same place, and for this reason the spiral-shaped Testaceans have their shells on the right,! for they do not move in the direction of the spire, but all go forward in the direction opposite to the spire. Examples are the murex and the ceryx.? As all animals then start movement from the right, and the right moves in the same direction as the whole, it is necessary for all to be alike right-handed. And man has the left limbs detached ὃ more than any other anima] because he is natural in a higher degree than the other animals; now the right is naturally both better* than the left and separate from it, and so in man the right is more especially the right, more dextrous that is, than in other animals. The right then being differentiated it is only reasonable that in man the left should be most movable,’ and most detached.® In man, too, the other starting-points’ are found most 8 Except the elephant, cf. H. A. 497° 22. * For the principle of Sovereignty, obtaining between each pair, cf. Plato, Zim. 45; P.A. 645° 11, 665%22, 67222; G.A. 742916. The idea is of Pythagorean origin, de Caelo, 284>7, fr. 15138 24; the superior being in their view prior to the right, and to the front, de Caelo, 285%21. On the physiological ground for the sovereignty of the right, cf. P..A.667%21, 535; G.A. 765" 1. Pliny, WV. H. xviii. 24 (54) makes a suggestive remark on sowing : pede,’ and this action may be seen in medals and other plastic repre- sentations of sowing. Some modern writers connect the Saturnian metre with this beat of the right foot.

[706a.5] Leg, εὐκινητότατα, which appears to be Z’s original reading. Two letters are erased and a written ina later hand. Man is the only ambi- dextrous animal, H.A. 49731; Mic. Eth. 1134» 34. Plato held that at birth he was nearly ambidextrous, only dextrous by habit (Leges,794E). The determining influence of habit is recognized in Mag. Mor. 1194" 30, but even for the ambidextrous the right is still φύσει βελτίω. Hippo- crates (de Aér. 17) makes some interesting remarks upon the effect of mutilation and habit upon the right side of Sauromatian women. forelimbs more detached than men; in H..4. 497° 22 the elephant is said to be the equal of man in this respect: 7 ἀρχαί, as usual, hard to render adequately. The superior, front and right, are said to be ἀρχαί in two senses in de Cae/o, 284° 20, Io - 5 706% DE INCESSU naturally and clearly distinct, the superior part that is and the front. Animals which, like men and birds, have the superior 5 part distinguished from the front are two-footed (biped). In them, of the four points of motion, two are wings in the one, hands and arms in the other. Animals which have the

[706a.30] superior and the front parts! identically situated are four- footed, many-footed, or footless (quadruped, polypod, limbless). I use the term foot? fora member employed for movement in place * connected with a point on the ground, for the feet appear to have got their name from the ground under our feet. 706° Some animals, too, have the front and back parts identically situated, for example Cephalopods (molluscs) and spiral-shaped Testaceans, and these we have discussed elsewhere in another connexion.* Now there is in place® a superior, an intermediate, and an inferior; in respect to place bipeds have their superior part corresponding to the superior part of the universe ; ὃ 5 quadrupeds,’ polypods, and footless animals to the inter- mediate part,® and plants to the inferior. The reason is that these have no power of locomotion, and the superior a quadruped’s forelegs are homologous with man’s arms, and are therefore strictly ‘superior’, and so the superior and front are in quadrupeds identical. we related pad to path etymologically ; cf. P..A. 695%22 ἡ τῶν ποδῶν It would be more characteristic to consider the middle or intermediate 1327209; Plato, Epin. 987 Ὁ ; Theoph. Mer. Br. 321). In this connexion A. generally uses only superior and inferior, and τὸ μέσον is ἔσχατον, cf. de Caelo, 308% 23, in which treatise there is a parallel 8 τὸ μεταξύ. Cf. Parv. Nat. 4688 7, and for the Universe, Afefeor. ANIMALIUM 5 706" part is determined relatively to the nutriment, and their nutriment is from the earth. Quadrupeds, polypods, and footless animals again have their superior part corresponding to the intermediate, because they are not erect. Bipeds -have theirs corresponding to the superior part of the universe because they are erect, and of bipeds, man par excellence; for man is the most natural of bipeds. And it 10 is reasonable for the starting-points to be in these parts ; for the starting-point! is honourable, and the superior is more honourable? than the inferior, the front than the back, and the right than the left. Or we may reverse the © argument and say quite well that these parts are more 15 honourable than their opposites just because the starting- points are in them. of movement is in the parts on the right. Now every continuous whole,’ one part of which is moved while the other remains at rest must, in order to be able to move as a whole while one part stands still, have in the place * where both parts have opposed movements® some common part which connects the moving parts with one another. Further in this common part the original of the motion (and similarly of the absence of motion) of each of the parts must lie. Clearly ὁ then if any of the opposite pairs of parts (right and left, that is, superior and inferior, before and behind) 25 have a movement of their own, each of them has for common original of its movements the juncture’ of the parts in question. Now before and behind are not distinctions relatively to & ° * Viz. at the joints, particularly at the four ‘ points’ of an organized body. regarded as contraries by A. He does not realize that the stationary limb is so kept by muscular contraction, though this would chime with his general doctrine. 7 Or perhaps leg. κατὰ τὴν τῶν eip, PT (sé¢ Mich.), viz. ‘hasa common original by reason of the natural interconnexion of the parts in θεῖσα. : The common original is the joint. Vv. AR. 1. A, D DE INCESSU 80 that which sets up its own motion,! because in nature nothing has a movement backwards,? nor has a moving animal any division whereby it may make a change of position towards its front or back; but right and left, superior and inferior are so distinguished. Accordingly, all

[707a.1] animals which progress by the use of distinct members have I 5 these members distinguished not by the differences of before and behind, but only of the remaining two pairs; the prior difference dividing these members into right and left (a difference which must appear as soon as you have division into two), and the other difference appearing of necessity where there is division into four. Since then these two pairs, the superior and inferior and the right and left, are linked to one another by the same common original® (by which I mean that which controls their movement), and further, everything which is intended to make a movement in each such part properly must have the original cause of all the said movements arranged in a certain definite position relatively to the distances from it of the originals of the movements of the individual members (and these centres of the individual parts are in pairs arranged co-ordinately or diagonally,* and the common centre is the original from which the animal’s movements of right and left, and similarly of superior and inferior, start); each animal must have this original at a point® by homology with man; there is therefore no articulation corresponding to the dimensions ‘front’ and ‘behind’. Cf. A.A. 494227; P.A. 686% 34. 2 Apparent exceptions are cephalopods and crayfish (1. A. 489» 33, 490° 3). The latter is correctly described as sometimes swimming back- wards, but A. only hesitatingly recognizes the use of the abdomen in that kind of progression. The crayfish also wa/ks backwards. Among quadrupeds the badger and the weasel seem to trot back- wards quite easily and naturally. 8 Viz. the heart. * Co-ordinately, e.g. fore near and hind near; diagonally, fore near, hind off. been altered to ἑκάστην much later) and Mich. ὁμοίως, p. 148. 19. pein eS 7

[707a.6] . ANIMALIUM where it is equally or nearly equally related to each of the centres in the four parts described. It is clear then how locomotion belongs to those animals only which make their changes of place by means of two or four points in their structure, or to such animals par excellence. Moreover, since this property! belongs almost peculiarly to Sanguineous animals, we see that no San- guineous animal can progress at more points than four, and that if it is the nature of anything so to progress at four points it must of necessity be Sanguineous. What we observe? in the animal world is in agreement with the above account. For no Sanguineous animal if it be divided into more parts can live for any appreciable length of time, nor can it enjoy the power of locomotion which it possessed while it was a continuous and undivided whole. But some bloodless animals and polypods can live a long time, if divided, in each of the severed parts, and can move in the same way as before they were dismembered. Examples are what is termed the centipede® and other insects that are long in shape, for even the hinder portion of all these goes on progressing in the same direction as before ὁ when they are cut in two. The explanation of their living when thus divided is that each of them is constructed like a continuous body of many separate living beings.’ It is plain, too, from what was said above why they are like this. Animals constructed most naturally are made to move at two or four points, and even limbless Sanguinea are no exception. They too move by The exception is man’s heart, which is a little to the left and upwards ; H. A. 496 15, 50741; P.A. 666" 6. 1 Viz. to have a common centre of movement or ἀρχή, lying in the middle, cf. zafra, ὃ 27. 8 A. appeals, as so often in his scientific treatises, to experience for confirmation of general theory. * Viz, ra ἔντομα, H. A. 531” 30; cf. de Anim. 4097 9, 411” 19, 413” 20; Parv. Nat. 4675 19, 468% 25, 47120; P. A. 667” 27, 673% 30. 5 Scolopendra, cf. H. A. 50513, 532%5, 621% 7. the several parts are said to move either way (cf. Prof. Platt, 1. c. p. 40). 7 On this point and its relation to the many limbs A. seems in advance of Galen (cf. de Usu Partium, iii. 2). D2 20 25 30 5 707” DE INCESSU dint of four points, whereby they achieve progression. They το go forward by means of two flexions.! For in each of their flexions there is a right and a left, both before and behind in their flat surface,” in the part towards the head a right and a left front point, and in the part towards the tail the two hinder points.* They look as if they moved at two points only, where they touch before and behind, but that

[707a.15] is only because they are narrow in breadth. Even in them the right is the sovereign part,‘ and there is an alternate correspondence behind,® exactly as in quadrupeds. The reason of their flexions is their great length, for just as tall men walk with their spines bellied (undulated) forward, and when their right shoulder is leading in a forward direction

[707a.20] their left hip is rather inclined backwards, so that their middle becomes hollow and bellied® (undulated), so we There the snake is said to progress by means of four bends (cf. the same theory as to eels, 708° 5 22:77). Here the philosopher seems to intend the theory expressed in the translation, which the diagram below will make clear. Had A. compared the progression of snakes with that of lizards his theory of four points would have been exactly ee owe ee exemplified. Iam notcertain that the snake or lizard alter- nates the curves, thougha fish necessarily does so in order to keep straight. The point is not discussed in Cuvier. A., though he describes their great number (7. A. 508? 3), did not realize the function of the ribs of the snake which, with their remarkable ball and socket joints, make the snake a polypod rather than a quadruped, though if he had he would have doubtless referred them to four original points (of course the ribs are not strictly feet), He does not remark upon the function of the tail of fish or lizard in this connexion, though in H. A. 490% 4 he says that the newt’s tail is used for progression (cf. P. A. 68483). Vid. A.M. Off. ix, p. 298. 3 Mich. forcing the Greek takes this to describe four flexions. ‘ ἡγεῖται has the pre-eminence, viz. initiates movement, not necessarily 5 Viz. the opposed response is made behind, i.e. motion of the left side. 6 A.’s observation about tall men is just. Aopdds is opposed to κυφός (γιοῦ 18); it was a medical term strictly used of the spine, viz. hollow backed )( hunched. Hipp. de Artic. 807 B; Nopdwtdy . . . ἐναντίον τ΄ κυρτῷ Erotiani Glossaria, p. 242 (Franzius). ANIMALIUM 7 707° ought to conceive snakes as moving in concave curves (undulations) upon the ground. And this is evidence that they move themselves like the quadrupeds, for they make the concave in its turn convex and the convex concave. When in its turn the left of the forward parts is leading, the

[707a.25] concavity is in its turn reversed, for the right becomes the inner. (Let the right front point be A, the left B, the right hind C, the left D.") Among land animals this is the character of the move- ment of snakes, and among water animals of eels, and conger-eels and also lampreys, in fact of all that have their

[707a.30] form snakelike.2 However, some marine animals of this

[708a.1] shape have no fin, lampreys® for example, but put the sea to the same use as snakes do both land and water (for snakes swim precisely as they move on the ground).® Others have two fins only, for example conger-eels and eels and

[708a.5] a kind of cestreus® which breeds in the lake of Siphae. On this account too those that are accustomed to live on land, for example all the eels, move with fewer flexions in a fluid than on land,’ while the kind of cestreus which has two fins, by its flexion in a fluid makes up the remaining 8 points. The reason why snakes are limbless® is first that nature makes nothing without purpose, but always regards τὸ what is the best possible for each individual, preserving the correct. * cE Hi. A. 489° 26; P.A. 696* 3 (and Dr. Ogle’s note), and zz/ra, 709» 12. * Muraena helena, cf. H.A. 48929, where the lamprey and other similar creatures are said to use the sea as snakes do the earth, and to swim in the watery medium in a manner similar to the movements of serpents. ΟΡ, A. 696" 9; 5. Cf. H. A. 504° 33; P.A. 6945 4. The features are not those of a mullet. Perhaps it is a fish akin to the Bichir of the Nile, and the Reed fish of Old Calabar. The latter has no ventral fins. 7 Eels appear to be regarded here as land fishes. The true reason of their fewer flexions in water is the greater ease of their progress there, not the fins, which are practically of no help. 8 Leg. ra Nowra σημεῖα Ζ. I1.e. inasmuch as they have two fins they use fewer flexions in the water than a snake, and thus preserve Nature’s 4 balance of four points of motion; cf. H.A. 490% 32 δύο {καμπαὶ σὺν 708? DE INCESSU peculiar essence of each and its intended character, and secondly the principle we laid down above that no San- guineous creature can move itself at more than four points. Granting this it is evident that Sanguineous animals like

[708a.15] snakes, whose length is out of proportion to the rest of their dimensions, cannot possibly have limbs; for they cannot have more than four (or they would be bloodless), and if they

[708a.20] had two or four they would be practically stationary ; so slow and unprofitable would their movement necessarily be.? But every limbed animal has necessarily an even number of such limbs. For those which only jump and so move from place to place do not need limbs? for this movement ag at least, but those which not only jump but also need to walk, finding that movement not sufficient for their purposes, evidently either are better able to progress with even limbs or cannot otherwise progress at 411,2 [for* every animal which has limbs must have an even number], for as this kind of movement is effected by part of the body at a time, and not by the whole at once® as in the movement of

[708a.30] leaping, some of the limbs must in turn remain at rest, and others be moved, and the animal must act in each of these cases with opposite limbs, shifting the weight from the limbs that are being moved to those at rest. And so®

[708b.1] walk on three limbs or on one ;" in the latter 2 Viz. do not need limbs in the specific sense of locomotory organs. Elsewhere A. relates the movement of jumping to the abnormally developed hind legs (e.g. in ἀκρίδες and ψύλλαι), cf. HA. 5323 27; PHA 083" 23; A. nowhere recognizes the uses of the tail in leaping, nor does he appear to mention the Elateridae (Skipjacks). πορεύεσθαι. My emendation gives the necessary sense, that polypods though they can succeed in progressing on odd limbs (cf. ἐπ γα, 14-16) do so detfer on even limbs; quadrupeds cannot walk at all on odd Necessity in the organic world manifests itself in a distribution of ments) or necessary and inevitable because of some τέλος, cf. P. A. * Clearly a gloss on the whole paragraph (om. PSU). 6 Viz., on account of this opposition.

[708b.8] ANIMALIUM case it has no support at all on which to rest the body’s weight, in the former only in respect of one pair of opposites, and so it must necessarily fall in endeavouring so to move. Polypods however, like the Centipede,’ can indeed make progress on an.odd number of limbs, as may be seen. by the experiment of wounding one of their limbs; for then the mutilation of one row of limbs is corrected by the number of limbs which remain on either side. Such muti- lated creatures, however, drag the wounded limb after them with the remainder, and do not properly speaking walk. Moreover, it is plain that they, too, would make the change of place better? if they had an even number, in fact if none were missing and they had the limbs which correspond to one another. In this way they could equalize their own weight, and not oscillate to one side, if they had corre- sponding supports instead of one section of the opposite sides being unoccupied by a limb. A walking creature advances from each of its members alternately,® for in this way it recovers the same figure that it had at first. The fact that all animals have an even number of feet, -gand the reasons for the fact have been set forth. What follows will explain that if there were no point at rest flexion and straightening would be impossible. Flexion ® is a change from a right line to an arc or an angle, straightening a change from either of these to a right line. Now in all such changes the flexion or the straightening must be relative to one point.?’ Moreover, without flexion there could not be walking or swimming or flying. For since limbed*® creatures stand and take their weight alter- nately on one or other of the opposite legs, if one be thrust 1 Scolopendra, vid. 707% 30 note. 2 βέλτιον, cf. supra, 708% 26 note. ® He is thinking of quadrupeds as typical, and their movement κατὰ the alternate angles, the angles there being taken, like the limbs here, in cyclic order. ® Cf. Meteor. 3865 2. 8 μέν refers to δέ in 7008 24.

[708a.1] forward the other must of necessity be bent. For the opposite limbs are naturally of equal length, and the one which is under the weight must bea kind of perpendicular ὦ at right angles to the ground. When then one leg is advanced it becomes the hypo- tenuse of a right-angled triangle. Its square then is equal to the square on the other side together with the square on the base. As the legs then are equal, the one at rest must bend either at the knee or, if there were any kneeless animal which walked, at some other articulation. The following experiment exhibits the fact. If a man were to walk parallel to a wall in sunshine, the line described (by the shadow of his head) would be not straight but zigzag,° becoming lower as he bends, and higher when he stands and lifts himself up. It is, indeed, possible to move oneself even if the leg be not bent, in the way in which children® crawl. This was the old though erroneous account of the movement of elephants.’ But these kinds of movements involve a flexion in the shoulders® or in the hips. Nothing at any rate® could walk upright continuously and securely without flexions at the knee, but would have to move like men in the wrestling schools who crawl forward through the sand on their knees. For the upper part of the upright creature is long so that its leg has to be correspondingly long; in touches the ground and the stationary foot.

[708a.5] Leg. ἐν αὐ ῇ ἡλίους ἐν yn PSUY: &v...7.... Z with TH in later hand (the space is for about 9 letters). Cf. Plut. Comvzv. iii. 1 (ii. 658 F). It should be evening light. Τ' seems to have read ἐν γειτόνων (uicinus). Perhaps this belongs to the alternative in Mich. p. 155. 4“ Not in the Greek. 5 Arist., like many Greek geometers, regards a zigzag as a kind of line, cf. MZe¢. 101642, 12. The line traced is ww as Mich. says. 5 To judge from Mich.’s note some words like καὶ οἱ avamnpot λεγό- j pot dey μένοι are missing here, viz. seals and bats, cf. zzfra, 714” 12. the elephant had no knee-joints. A. corrects this mistake in H. A. 4988 8, and zuzfra, 7128 11. He appears to be incorrectly informed in P.A. 659*29, where he speaks of their legs as bending with difficulty (apviay τῆς κάμψεως), unless that means the exceptional bending.

[709a.1] consequence there must be flexion. or since a stationary position is perpendicular, if that which moves cannot bend? it will either fall forward as the right angle becomes acute or will not be able to progress. For if one leg is at right angles to the ground and the other is advanced, the latter will be at once equal and greater. For it will be equal to

[709a.20] the stationary leg and also equivalent to the hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle.? That which goes forward there- fore must bend, and while bending one, extend the other leg simultaneously, so as to incline forward and make a stride and still remain above the perpendicular ; for the legs form an isosceles triangle, and the head sinks lower when it is perpendicularly above the base on which it stands.®

[709a.25] Of limbless animals, some progress by undulations (and this happens in two ways, either they undulate on the ground, like snakes, or up and down, like caterpillars), and undulation is a flexion; others by a telescopic * action, like what are called earthworms and leeches. These go forward, first one part leading and then drawing the whole 3° of the rest of the body up to this, and so they change from place to place. It is plain too that if the two curves were not greater than the one line® which subtends them undu- lating animals could not move themselves ; when the flexure 709” is extended they would not have moved forward at all if seem a gloss. (Prof. Platt agrees, I. c. p. 42.) 2 δυνήσεται, not here used in the mathematical sense as supra, 709 I, but in the ordinary sense. The leading leg is both equal to the back leg, because a man’s legs are equal, and greater because (in the figure made necessary by the inflexibility hypothesis) it subtends the right angle. * βαίνειν, as in Euclid iii, Def. 9, an angle stands on the arc below it (not in L. and S. or Bonitz in this sense). As the man moves, his head drops lower until it is the perpendicular of an isosceles A triangle, where AB and AC are his legs. The brachy- _ logy is easier in Greek because isosceles means ‘ with equal legs’ ° 6 ο 4 ἰλύσπασις, cf. H. A. 4870 22 ; telescopic suggests the movement of earthworms, which is concertina-like. L. and S. wrongly translate ‘ wriggling ’, which is not a worm’s normal movement. A.’s account of the fact is characteristically accurate; characteristically too he does not ask how it squares with his theory of movement. 5 Viz. the two arcs are together greater than um chord which sub- tends them. 709° DE INCESSU the flexure or arc were equal to the chord subtended ; as it is, it reaches further when it is straightened out, and then this part stays still and it draws up what is left behind. In all the changes described that which moves now 5 extends itself in a straight line to progress, and now is hooped; it straightens itself in its leading part, and is hooped in what follows behind. Even jumping animals all make a flexion in the part of the body which is underneath,! and after this fashion make their leaps. So too flying το and swimming? things progress, the one straightening and bending their wings to fly, the other their fins to swim. Of the latter some have four fins,® others which are rather long, for example eels, have only two. These swim by substituting a flexion of the rest of their body for the (missing) pair of fins to complete the movement, as we 15 have said before. Flat fish use two fins, and the flat of their body as a substitute for the absent pair of fins.® Quite flat fish, like the Ray,® produce their swimming movement with the actual fins and with the two extremes or semicircles of their body, bending and straightening themselves alternately. 20 <A difficulty might perhaps be raised about birds. How, it may be said, can they, either when they fly or when they walk, be said to move at four points? Now we did not say that all Sanguinea move at four points, but merely at not more than four. Moreover, they cannot as a fact fly if 1 Ch supra, 705 42. 2 A. nowhere in this treatise recognizes the use of the tail in swim- ming ; he treats the tail as a rudder throughout (cf. 710%1); by fins he means the pectoral and ventral fins, and these he considers the sole organs of locomotion in the normal fish (cf. 709 9 and note). ΟΕ 7A. 489" 24, ° A. seems to think that fish like the plaice use their flat edges for swimming, as the rays do. Correct about the rays, he is wrong about these flat fish. accurate account of the Rays, distinguishing those that have no obvious fins from the Torpedo fish which has two (regarded by A. as pectorals) the other two points of movement. This is what ‘he is describing here; ele? he does not realize that these processes are the true Becrora! ns = Pon = ae ee ANIMALIUM τὸ their legs be removed, nor walk without their wings. Even a man does not walk without moving his shoulders. Every- thing indeed, as we have said, makes a change of place by flexion and straightening, for all things progress by pressing upon? what being beneath them up to a point? gives way as it were gradually; accordingly, even if there be no flexion in another member, there must be at least in the point whence motion begins, that is in feathered ὃ (flying) insects at the base of the ‘scale-wing’, in birds at the base of the wing, in others at the base of the corresponding member, the fins, for instance, in fishes. In others, for example snakes, the flexion begins in the joints of the body. In winged creatures the tail ὅ serves, like a ship’s rudder, to keep the flying thing in its course. The tail then must like other limbs be able to bend at the point of attachment.® And so flying insects, and birds (Schizoptera) whose tails are ill-adapted for the use in question, for example peacocks, and domestic cocks, and generally birds that hardly fly,’ can- not steer a straight course. Flying insects have absolutely no tail, and so drift along like a rudderless® vessel, and 1 ἀποστηριζόμενα or a similar word must be supplied, and has perhaps dropped out after γάρ. Cf. supra, 705% 7 (reading of Z). case of water and air the resisting medium is not regarded as quite stationary like the earth. A. does not discuss the results upon flying and swimming creatures of the fact that the medium is all round them. 8 Holoptera, lit. with whole feathers (viz. what we call wings in Lepidoptera, &c.), in contrast with birds which have wings divided into feathers (Schizoptera, 710* 5). 4 Leg. πτιλοῦ Z (sic), cf. infra, 713% Io. 5 οὐροπύγιον (cf. H.A. 504°32; P.A. 697° 11), viz. the tail with the tail feathers. δ᾽ πρόσφυσις, viz. the caudal vertebrae, which, as A. says, are freely movable, and do not anchylose like those of the trunk. 8 A. does not recognize the function of the tail in keeping the flying body horizontal, and in helping the bird to rise and sink. He thinks of it apparently only as subserving a direct course. Contrast A. M. ix. p- 296. ® A. did not detect the uses of the abdomen in an insect’s flight. Movements to right and left are governed primarily by deflexion of the abdomen. The drifting flight (e. g. of butterflies) is perhaps protective, and in the case of the chafers, &c., is due less to the causes A. suggests than to the imperfect balance produced by the relatively excessive weight of the hind parts. We may compare the erect flight of moor- hens and coots, among birds, where the wings are set too far forward. 25 30

[710a.1] beat against anything they happen upon; and this applies

[710a.10] equally to sharded ! insects, like the scarab-beetle and the chafer,? and to unsharded, like bees and wasps. Further, birds that are not made for flight have a tail that is of no use; for instance the purple coot and the heron®. and all water-fowl. These fly stretching out their feet® as

[710a.15] a substitute for a tail, and use their legs instead of a tail to direct their flight. The flight of insects is slow and frail because the character of their feathery wings’ is not pro- portionate to the bulk of their body; this is heavy, their wings small and frail, and so the flight they use is like 20a cargo boat attempting to make its voyage with oars; now the frailty both of the actual wings and of the out- growths 8 upon them contributes in a measure to the flight described. Among birds, the peacock’s tail is at one time 4 useless because of its size, at another because it is shed.® But birds are in general at the opposite pole to flying

[710a.25] insects as regards their feathers, but especially the swiftest flyers among them. (These are the birds with curved talons,’® for swiftness of wing is useful to their mode of 1{6.11 The rest of their bodily structure is in harmony with 80 their peculiar movement, the small head, the slight}? neck, 1 Coleoptera. descriptions tally with our May-bug or cockchafer. * Or Purple Gallinule, a bird akin to our water-hen (Porphyrio hyacinthus or coeruleus), This is Dr. Thompson’s identification (Glossary of Greek Birds). Bonitz, with Aubert, thinks it may be the Flamingo (Phoenicopterus rvoseus), and certainly the remark about its legs would then be more pointed. Why should it not be the Purple Heron (Ardea Purpurea)? > Gilbert White remarks (Se/borne, Letter xlii) ‘herons seem en- cumbered with too much sail for their light bodies’. © Ct P; A. 694» 20. T Cf. supra, 709° 30. 8. Omit 7, Z. ἔκφυσις seems here to refer to the scales which form the surface of the wings; cf. P..A. 6585 where the word is used for hair growing as a covering. 9. Cf. H. A. 564% 32. This so-called tail is not a true tail, the feathers in the οὐροπύγιον are only about 6 in. long. 10 j,e. Raptores. % Leon. omits ov, but A. is now speaking of birds generally, not of Raptores. The head and neck are relatively small and light; cf. P. A. 659” 8, 692” 20 (τεταμένος). In P. A. 694" 26 he is speaking of a relatively thick neck. ANIMALIUM τὸ 710 the strong and acute breastbone (acute? like the prow of a clipper-built vessel, so as to be well-girt,? and strong by dint of its mass of flesh ὃ), in order to be able to push away 710° the air that beats against it, and that easily and without exhaustion. The hind-quarters, too, are light and taper again, in order to conform to the movement of the front and not by their breadth to suck ὅ the air. that is to stand erect must necessarily be not only a biped, but must also have the superior parts of the body lighter, and those that lie under these heavier, is plain.® Only if situated like this could it possibly carry itself easily. And το so man, the only erect animal, has legs’ longer and stouter relatively to the upper parts of his body than any other animal with legs. What we observe in children also is evidence of this. Children® cannot walk erect because they are always dwarf-like, the upper parts of their bodies being longer and stouter than the lower. With advancing - 5 1 Referring to the sternal crest or ee/ of Carinate Birds; cf. P. A. 659? 9, 693° 16. ut bene viam paret.) 8 περιφύσει, if correct (φύσει PSUY and Mich.), seems to be an instance of the Principle of Compensation (cf. P. A. 689” 30, 695" 7, and note to 704? 12). A.’s language describes the great mass of pectoral muscles in a bird, but he does not realize the function of muscles, nor the use of these to support the wings. In P.A. 693" 18 he gives a different explanation, ‘to protect the breast- bone,’ just as he explains a man’s breasts and pectoral muscles inthat way. 4 iy ἀπωθεῖν δύνηται, &c., depends upon both adjectives, cf. P. A. 693° 16; the intermediate words are parenthetic. explain the lumbering flight of a heavy bird. The Greek means ‘to draw the air’, and is a similarly popular explanation. Cf. P. A. (loc. were wrongly constructed with the greatest width in the centre; the later have, like a bird, a blunt forecastle from which the lines gradually taper to the stern. * Cf..P.A. 690° 27. and other young,and Parv. Nat. 4536; H.A. 500° 33. Birdsare said to be not erect because of their dwarfishness, P. A. 686° 21, 695% 8. For the subject generally, and its connexion with A.’s embryology, vid. G..A. 741" 27, 742” 14, 779? 24. 710? DE INCESSU years the lower increase disproportionately, until the children get their appropriate size, and then and not till then they succeed in walking erect. Birds are hunchbacked? yet stand on two legs because their weight is set back, after the principle of horses fashioned in bronze with their fore- 20 legs prancing.? But their being bipeds and able to stand is above all due to their having the hip-bone shaped like a thigh, and so large that it looks as if they had two thighs,’ one in the leg before the knee-joint, the other joining this part to the fundament. Really this is not a thigh but 25 a hip, and if it were not so large the bird could not be a biped. As in a man or a quadruped, the thigh and the rest of the leg would be attached immediately to quite a small hip; consequently the whole body would be tilted forward. As it is, however, the hip is long and extends right along to the middle of the belly, so that the legs are

[710a.30] attached at that point and carry as supports the whole frame. It is also evident from these considerations that a bird cannot possibly be erect in the sense in which man is. For as it holds its body now the wings are naturally

[711a.1] useful to it, but if it were erect they would be as useless as the wings of Cupids* we see in pictures. It must have been clear as soon as we spoke that the form of no human nor any similar being permits of wings; not only because

[711a.5] it would, though Sanguineous, be moved at more than four 1 Leg. κυφοί Z (cf. 707 21 note). The spine of a bird is hunched, and this gives it a top-heavy appearance (dwarfish) ; in spite of this Nature sets the weight back like a skilful statuary. 3 A. intends by ἰσχίον the true femur, by the ‘other bone’ the tibia and fibula. Cf. H.A. ii. 12 and P. A. 694%29. In his note to the latter passage Dr. Ogle expresses the opinion that A. correctly identi- fied the ἰσχίον with the elongated pelvis of a bird. This is certainly favoured by the language of P. A., and in that case A. may have been writing with a bird’s skeleton before him; here and in HA. he cer- tainly seems to take his normal view of the segments of the limb, a view which is incorrect. * The language suggests that Greek artists gave their Cupids long wings, like those of Love in Watts’s pictures. Perhaps, however, the stress is merely on the incorrect anatomy of six points of movement. The question is part of a favourite quarrel between the natural philo- sopher and the artist, in which Galen takes a share (Galen, de Usu Part. iii, ch. 1; Aristotle, Aeteor. 349%1; de Motu, 69825). Bell’s criticism (Bridgewater Treatise, ed. 4, p. 324) is similarly directed to the relations between structure and locomotion. ANIMALIUM u points, but also because to have wings would be useless to it when moving naturally. And Nature makes nothing contrary to her own nature. We have stated above? that without flexion in the legs or shoulders and hips no Sanguineous animal with feet could progress, and that flexion is impossible except some point be at rest, and that men and birds, both bipeds, bend their legs in opposite directions, and further that quadru- peds bend theirs in opposite directions, and each pair in the opposite way to a man’s limbs. For men bend their arms backwards,’ their legs forwards; quadrupeds their forelegs forwards, their back legs backwards, and in like manner also birds bend theirs. The reason is that Nature’s workmanship is never purposeless, as we said above, but everything for the best possible in the circumstances. Inasmuch, therefore, as all creatures which naturally have the power of changing position by the use of limbs, must have one leg stationary with the weight of the body on it, and when they move forward the leg which has the leading position must be unencumbered, and the progression con- tinuing the weight must shift and be taken off on this leading leg, it is evidently necessary for the back leg from being bent to become straight again,® while the point of movement of the leg thrust forward and its lower part remain still. And so the legs must be jointed. And it is possible for this to take place and at the same time for the animal to go forward, if the leading leg has its articulation forwards, impossible if it be backwards. For, if it be for- wards, the stretching out of the leg will be while the body is going forwards, but, if the. other way, while it is going backwards. And again, if the flexion were backwards, the placing of the foot would be made by two movements and those contrary to one another, one, that is, backwards and one forwards; for in the bending together of the limb iy ἢ ἢ ch. 9, supra. ? Lit. ‘concavely’. Cf. note on 704* 19. * This is the suppressed conclusion, the next paragraph shows which way the joints must bend in order to progression. ° bb 5 . 30 qu? DE INCESSU the lower end of the thigh would go backwards, and the shin would move the foot forwards away from the flexion ; 5 whereas, with the flexion forwards, the progression described will be performed not with contrary motions, but with one forward motion. Now man, being a biped and making his change of position in the natural way with his two legs, bends them forward for the reasons set forth, but his arms bend back-

[711a.10] wards reasonably! enough. If they bent the opposite way they would be useless for the work of the hands,? and for taking food. But quadrupeds which are also viviparous necessarily bend their front legs forwards. For these lead off first ? when they move, and are also in the fore-part of

[711a.15] their body. The reason that they bend forward is the same as in the case of man, for in this respect * they are like mankind. And so quadrupeds as well as men bend these legs forward in the manner described. Moreover, if the flexion is like this, they are enabled to lift their feet high ;

[711a.20] if they bent them in the opposite way they would only lift them a little way from the ground, because the whole thigh and the joint from which the shin-bone springs would lie under the belly as the beast moved forward. If, however, the flexion of the hind legs were forwards the lifting of these feet would be similar to that of the forefeet (for the

[711a.25] hind legs, too, would in this case have only a little room for their lifting inasmuch as both the thigh and the knee- joint would fall under the position of the belly); but the flexion being backwards, as in fact it is, nothing comes in the way of their progression with this mode of moving the

[711a.30] feet. Moreover, it is necessary or at least better® for a mark of humanity. forelimbs in some quadrupeds for manual purposes. 3 ἡγεῖται; or ‘govern their movement’, because the front is superior to the back, 4 Viz. the forelegs play the chief part in movement (cf. a bird’s wings, 7120 27), and so are analogous in function (and in curvature) to man’s legs. In truth the hind legs play the chief part in quadruped progression, and this is recognized in ?. A. 685% 20 where theory is not involved. 5 A. shows often how a secondary purpose affects Nature’s handi- ANIMALIUM 12 qu their legs to bend thus when they are suckling their young, with a view to such ministrations. If the flexion were inwards it would be difficult to keep their young under them ‘and to shelter them.!

[712a.1] Now there are four modes of flexion if we take the combinations in pairs.2 Fore and hind may bend either both backwards, as the figures* marked A, or in the

[712a.5] opposite way both forwards, as in B, or in converse ways and not in the same direction, as in C where the fore bend forwards and the hind bend backwards, or as in D, the opposite way to C, where the convexities are turned towards one another * and the concavities outwards. Now no biped or quadruped bends his limbs like the figures A or B, but the quadrupeds like C, and like D only the τὸ elephant ὅ among quadrupeds and man if you consider his arms as well as his legs. For he bends his arms concavely and his legs convexly. In man, too, the flexions of the limbs are always alter- nately ὁ opposite, for example the elbow bends back, but work, just as a part (in spite of the Platonic principle of specialization) is sometimes adapted to secondary uses. Cf. P..A. 6888 24. 1 A somewhat different solution is offered in P. 4. (6888 15, 6888 31) of the problem of the position of the lacteal glands in the animal creation. There A. thinks that the lateral attachment of man’s arms enables his chest to be broad, and so furnishes room to the breasts ; the forelegs of a quadruped, on the other hand, dictate a narrow chest and have no room for udders. The considerations here put forward would have explained very well the forward position of the elephant’s udder (cf. H. A. 4988 1, 500% 19) since his hind legs bend forward in A.’s view. A. gives a farfetched @ rior explanation of the fact in P. A. 6886. 1290” 35, 13178 1), the other reading seems ΟΝ < p, a to have arisen from the loss of τῆς κάμψεως 8. Mich. gives the figures which are lacking » » x +S β in the text of our MSS. * The full expression is used in H.A. one another, ἀντιστροφή being used of geo- D ὃ metrical as well as of logical conversion. < ἢ Σ < 5 Does not the elephant bend like B? Cf. H. A.498* 12. The MSS. are much confused. % ® Elsewhere A. explains that similarly man has his flexions alternate and opposite to those of an animal throughout. In the above diagram a and y are alternate and opposite, and so AR. I. A. E 712" DE INCESSU

[712a.15] the wrist of the hand forwards, and again the shoulder forwards. In like fashion, too, in the case of the legs, the hip backwards, the knee forwards, the ankle in the oppo- site way backwards. And plainly the lower limbs are opposed in this respect to the upper, because the first! joints are opposites, the shoulder bending forwards, the

[712a.20] hip backwards; wherefore also the ankle bends backwards, and the wrist of the hand forwards. This is the way then the limbs bend, and for the reasons 14

[712a.25] given. But the hind limbs move criss-cross with the fore limbs; after the off fore they move the near hind, then the near fore, and then the off hind. The reason is that (a) if they moved the forelegs together and first, the animal would be wrenched, and the progression would be a stumbling forwards with the hind parts as it were dragged

[712a.30] after. Again, that would not be walking but jumping, and it is hard to make a continuous change of place, jumping all the time. Here is evidence of what I say; even as it is, all horses that move in this way soon begin to refuse,? for example the horses in a religious procession.? 712” For these reasons the fore limbs and the hind limbs move in this separate way. Again, (δ) if they moved both the right legs first the weight ° would be outside the supporting limbs and they would fall. If then it is necessary to move in one or other of these ways or criss-cross fashion, and neither of these two is satisfactory, they must move criss- cross; for moving in the way we have said they cannot possibly experience either of these untoward results. And this is why horses and such-like animals stand still with necessarily the remaining joints which follow in succession (cp. 1. A. 498" 24). sk ἀρχή : SC. τῆς κινήσεως, principle of motion. The superior joint in each limb is regarded as the initial point in animal progression. 2 ἀπαγορεύουσι. It is remarkable that A. says nothing of hopping birds in this treatise. After a few hops, they have recourse to a short flight. the artists of the Parthenon frieze. I can find only one genuine trot there represented. ‘ Del. ov with ZUSYTI. ° Lit. ‘they would be’. In later terminology, the centre of gravity would lie outside the limbs, and so produce unstable equilibrium. ANIMALIUM 14 their legs put forward criss-cross, not with the right or the left put forward together at once. In the same fashion animals with more than four legs make their movements ; if you take two consecutive pairs of legs the hind move criss-cross with the forelegs ; you can see this if you watch them moving slowly. Even crabs move in this way, and they are polypods. They, too, always move criss-cross in whichever! direction they are making progress. For in direction this animal has a movement all its own; it is the only animal that moves not forwards, but obliquely.2, Yet since forwards is a distinction relative to the line of vision,’ Nature has made its eyes able to conform to its limbs, for its eyes can move themselves obliquely, and therefore after a fashion crabs are no exception but in this sense move forwards. 15 Birds bend their legs in the same way as quadrupeds.® For their natural construction is broadly speaking nearly the same. That is, in birds the wings are a substitute for the forelegs;" and so they are bent in the same way as the forelegs® of a quadruped, since when they move to progress the natural beginning® of change is from the wings (as in quadrupeds from the forelegs). Flight in fact is their appropriate’° movement. And so if the wings be cut off a bird can neither stand still nor go forwards. Again, the bird though a biped is not erect,“ and has the forward parts of the body lighter than the hind, and so it is necessary (or at least preferable for the standing posture) to have the thigh so placed below the body as it actually is, * Cf. H.A. 526 το, 527} 8, 52927; a different reason is given in P. A. 6588 2. 5 Viz. as quadrupeds bend their hind legs; perhaps τὰ ὄπισθεν has dropped out, though the sense is made certain by the context. - © Leg. τοῖς τετράποσι (YZ) ai γάρ (Z) a reading which may be traced by the side of Bekker’s in Mich. (p. 166.26). So also reads I. ® Cf. supra, 711» 13 and note. 10 Cf. P. A. 693" 14. Cf. P. A. 695* 3. Io 20 30 712” DE INCESSU I mean growing towards the back.! If then it must have this situation the flexion of the leg must be backwards, as

[713a.1] in the hind legs of quadrupeds. The reasons are the same as those given in the case of viviparous quadrupeds. If now we survey generally birds and winged insects,?

[713a.5] and animals which swim in a watery medium, all I mean that make their progress in water by dint of organs of movement, it is not difficult to see that it is better to have the attachment of the parts in question oblique to the frame, exactly as in fact we see it to be both in birds and insects. And this same arrangement obtains also among fishes. 1o Among birds the wings are attached obliquely ; so are the fins ὃ in water animals, and the feather-like wings of insects. In this way they divide the air or water most quickly * and with most force and so effect their movement. For the hinder ® parts in this way would follow forwards as they

[713a.15] are carried along in the yielding medium, fish in the water, birds in the air. Of oviparous quadrupeds all those that live in holes, like crocodiles, lizards, spotted lizards,® freshwater tortoises,’ and turtles, have their legs attached obliquely® as their whole body sprawls over the ground,!® and bend them 2 Holoptera. $ Put a comma for the full stop after πτερύγια. * A. nowhere grasps the mechanical purpose of the forwards-upwards, backwards-downwards movement of the wings. His description of the ; movements themselves is only superficial. 5 Leg. καὶ ra ὄπισθεν μόρια Y, cf. supra, 710 3. The MSS.are much confused, and the argument not satisfactory. Mich. has the Bekker reading, but gives a ludicrous explanation. I do not know whether there may not be concealed a reference to the patent fact that the motion of a bird’s wings as of the fins of a fish is simultaneous. It is extraordinary that A. nowhere refers to this except sud stlentio. It was adverted to by the mediaeval naturalist Albertus Magnus, de motzbus AN: 11: 2,CR. 3. ° i.e. Lacerta mauretanica; the ocellated lizard or gecko (tarantula) of 5. Europe and N. Africa. 7 1e. Emys lutaria. Dermochelys coriacea and Thalassochelys caretta (Tartaruga de mart, Sardinia; Zartuca de mari, Sicily). 9. Cf. H. A. 49815 though there the joints are differently described. We may add the chameleon (27. A. 503% 21). ordinata tota Γ). Mich. has τεταμένα (p. 166. 27), the loss of κατά ANIMALIUM 15 713"

[713a.20] obliquely. The reason is that this is useful for ease in creeping into holes, and for sitting upon their eggs! and guarding them. And as they are splayed outwards? they must of necessity tuck in® their thighs and put them under them in order to achieve the lifting of the whole

[713a.25] body. In view of this they cannot bend them otherwise than outwards. 16 We have already stated the fact* that non-sanguineous animals with limbs are polypods and none of them quadru- peds. And the reason why their legs, except the extreme pairs, were necessarily attached obliquely and had their flexions upwards, and the legs themselves were somewhat

[713a.30] turned under (bandy-shape)® and backwards is plain.® In all such creatures the intermediate legs both lead and follow.?. If then they lay under them, they must have 713° had their flexion both forwards and backwards; on account of leading, forwards; and on account of following, back- accounting for the καί in S and U. He explains ‘let down to the ground’ as compared with birds’ wings ! ΣΕ A. Alvi 33 2 Not as Mich. takes it ‘ when they are out of their holes’, cf. infra, 7135 25. YZ add the explanatory gloss (or true reading) αὐτῶν {τοῦ 51 δρι προσστέλλοντα, 5 Mich.’s words indicate, andthe sense demands, 4 Supra, 704° 11. 5 There are three several characters correctly described from nature: (a) the intermediate legs are attached laterally, cf. H.A. 525 25 ; P. A. 683° 33 5 (4) the principal flexion is upwards (as in a fly’s legs) ; (c) the limbs are bent under, or bandy, cf. P. A. 683° 35. In the text as it stands no explanation i is offered of the upward bend- ing, while the phrase ‘bend laterally’ is used as equivalent to ‘laterally attached’ (quite a different feature), that is the plane of the bent limb is oblique to the plane of progression and vision. His examples are cray- fish, &c., and again flying insects, not centipedes, millipedes, &c. 5 "The interpretation of βλαισότης is very difficult, and the various uses not consistent. The word means ‘bandiness’, and sometimes expresses an actual curvature of a bone or segment of a limb, sometimes the general lie of awholelimb. For example the elbow-joint (in A.’s sense) normally lies further outside the line of progression than the hand or shoulder, and so a man’s arms are bandied as they hang normally. εἰς τὸ ὄπισθεν seems to mean here that the foot is also behind a plane drawn through the knee at right angles to the plane or axis of progression (unless it could mean that the elbow is up and back, cf. H. A. 4988 21). L. and S. seem wrongly to take βλαισότης to mean ‘bent inwards at the joint’, through misinterpretation of Hippocrates, de art. 53 (L. iv. 234). 713° DE INCESSU wards. Now since they have to do both, for this reason 5their limbs are turned under? and bent obliquely, except the two extreme pairs. (These two are more natural in their movement, the front leading and the back following.?) Another reason for this kind of flexion is the number of their legs; arranged in this way they would interfere less with one another in progression and not knock together. το But the reason that they are bandy ὃ is that all of them or most of them live in holes, for creatures living so cannot possibly be high above the ground. But crabs are in nature the oddest ὅ of all polypods; they do not progress forwards except in the sense explained above,° and they are the only animals which have more 15 than one pair of leading limbs.’ The explanation of this is the hardness of their limbs, and the fact that they use them not for swimming but for walking; they always keep on the ground. However, the flexion of the limbs of all polypods is oblique, like that of the quadrupeds which live in holes—for example lizards and crocodiles and most of 20 the oviparous quadrupeds. And the explanation is that some of them in their breeding periods, and some all their life, live in holes. Now the rest have bandy legs because they are soft- 17 skinned, but the crayfish is hard-skinned and its limbs are bandiness ; of the latter an explanation is attempted in 713" 9. ? i.e. the leading feet bend forwards, the hind backwards (with a slight turn outwards, 27. “4. 4988 16). δ Infra, Ὁ 20, this troglodyte habit is used to explain the lateral situation of the limbs. Ῥ. 169.9. So also I reads. > Leg. περιττότατοι YZ, Mich. The passage looks like a dittograph of 24 seq. zzf/ra. In ἢ 26 the hardness is used to explain why crabs are not bandy. & Supra, 712” 20. 8. The argument seems to have been that, by contrast with other 4 polypods, crayfish and crabs are not bandy; crayfish both because ef their skin is hard, and because they would swim worse if bandy; crabs 4 because of their hard skin, even though they live on the ground and in holes (?. 4. 6845 5). I think that the true text is lost beyond recovery. ANIMALIUM 17 713” for swimming and not for walking (and so are not bandy).! Crabs, too, have their limbs bent obliquely, but not bandy ? 25 like oviparous quadrupeds and non-sanguineous polypods, because their limbs have a hard and shell-like skin, although they don’t swim but live in holes; they live in fact on the ground. Moreover, their shape is like a disk,’ as compared with the crayfish which is elongated, and they haven't a tail* like the crayfish ; a tail is useful to the crayfish 30 for swimming, but the crab is not a swimming creature. Further, it alone has its side equivalent to a hinder ρα, because it has many leading feet. The explanation of this

[714a.1] is that its flexions are not forward nor its legs turned in under (bandy). We have given above the reason why its legs are not turned in under, that is the hardness and shell- like character of its integument. For these reasons then it must lead off with more than

[714a.5] one limb,’ and move obliquely; obliquely, because the flexion is oblique ;7 and with more than one limb, because otherwise the limbs that were still would have got in the way of those that were moving. MSS. which Mich. used. the negative is correct is shown by 714% 1. Mich.’s reading was equiva- lent in sense though he gives an absurd explanation by which A. is made to mean that crabs were born bandy and do not (like soft-skinned creatures) bend bandy as they walk (cf. A.A. 498921). Can the ex- planation be that since a crab is odd enough to walk sideways, its legs are not bandy as they appear to be if you take the line of progression to be through the eyes? * Cf. H. A. 525531; P.A. 68492. or flank is equivalent to a hinder part (cf. for πλάγιον in this sense P. A. 657 21, 670% 14). Y). It leads with two pairs criss-cross with the relatively hinder pairs (supra, 71213). The sense may have been originally that this leading makes it go sideways, as is the truth, I think, apart from deeper grounds ; or that its going sideways demands this leading, otherwise the legs would obstruct one another. Τ' embodied both, ‘pluribus omnibus.’ it be explained as an arrangement to prévent obstruction (cf. supra, 713° 8). 714° DE INCESSU Fishes of the flat kind swim with their heads twisted, as one-eyed men walk; they have their natural shape distorted. Web-footed birds swim with their feet ; because 1othey breathe the air and have lungs! they are bipeds,? but because they have their home in the water they are webbed ; by this arrangement their feet serve them instead of fins. They have their legs too, not like the rest of birds in the centre of their body, but rather set back. Their legs are short, and being set back are serviceable for 15swimming. The reason for their having short legs is that nature ® has added to their feet by subtracting from the length of their limbs; instead of length she gives stoutness to the legs and breadth to the feet. Broad feet δ are more useful than long for pushing away the water when they are swimming. fish none. The former have their home in the dry medium, and cannot remain always in mid air; they must there- fore have feet. Fish on the contrary live inthe wet medium,’ 714” and take in water, not air. Fins ὃ are useful for swimming, but feet not. And if they had both they would be non- sanguineous. There is a broad similarity between birds and fishes in the organs of locomotion. Birds have their 5 wings on the superior part, similarly fish have two pectoral ; fins; again, birds have legs on their under parts and near 2 Because they must not have more than a quaternion of points of motion, cf. P. A. 693"5. * CL P4603" 6,604" 1; 4 Ci P. A264” 10. 5 According to the natural principle of organic equivalents, cf. ?. 4. 694° 27, >18; supra, 710% 32 3 and note to 704? 12. ® Leg. πλατεῖς Z as the concord requires; cf. P. A. 694" 5. ΤΑ. does not pause to ask why a fish can remain balanced in the watery medium whereas a bird cannot so remain in the air. He a accepts the fact that a fish floats at any chosen point. Again, he says 4 nothing of the surface presented to the water by the fish, though he } has touched on the eines question in respect of birds (supra, 7101). In P.A. 6954 he states that he has raised this question elsewhere, so that perhaps it is missing here by some mischance. 5. Cf. P. A. 695521. (Strictly of course these are feet, cf. ch. 5.) ANIMALIUM 18 the wings ;! similarly, most? fish have two fins? on the under parts and near the pectorals. Birds, too, have a tail and fish a tail-fin. 19 A difficulty may be suggested as to the movements of molluscs, that is, as to where that movement originates ; for they have no distinction of left and right. Now observa- tion shows them moving. We must, I think, treat all this class as mutilated,° and as moving in the way in which limbed creatures do when one cuts off their legs, or as analogous with the seal and the bat. Both the latter are quadrupeds but misshapen. Now molluscs do move, but move in a manner contrary to nature. They are not moving things, but are moving if as sedentary creatures ὃ they are compared with zoophytes,’ and sedentary if classed with progressing animals. As to right and left, crabs, too, show the distinction poorly, still they do show it. You can see it in the claw ; the right 8 claw is larger and stronger, as though the right and left sides were trying ° to get distinguished.!° τῶν πτερύγων). I think Z preserves the original words. The point is: (a) the external similarity of the positions of the bird’s limbs and the fish’s paired fins (by contrast with quadrupeds) ; (6) that sost fish have ventral fins, and those near the pectorals, cf. P.A. 696" 3. A. might have added the lateral attachment of both wings and fins (sufra, 713% 10). Bacon refers to the passage with approval, ov. Org. ii. 27. For a bird’s legs cf. P. A. 695°11 ; supra, 714*12; for πρανῶν (sc. πτερυγίων) cf. H.A.514%2. Τ' 15 mutilated but confirms Z, τ᾿ 8 Viz. the ventral fins. A. uses rrepvyia only for the paired fins. * i.e. Mollusca, excluding Cephalopoda. species in H. A. 498% 31; P.A. 6971 et seq. " Lit. ‘ growing things’ (or if προσπεφυκότα be kept, cf. 27. A. 487” 8, 531% 32; G. A. 715} 17, ‘attached things’), of which ‘the sponge is the typical species (cf. P. A. 6815 16). In HA. 548°8 φυόμενα, usually equivalent to ra φυτά (plants) is by a natural extension made to include sponges, the lowest of animals. of Man, i i. 330. " βούλεσθαι. A. says ‘intend’ where the modern says ‘tend’. Nature is often spoken of as trying without necessarily succeeding (cf. P.A. 665» 22).

[714a.30] A.’s speculations upon the commensal habits of some of the so-called INDEX Nat. 4° 1, 14°20; Physics 98 10, 99” 30, οὗ 25; (ἢ) lost work de Nutrimento 2 10. Arms, flexion of, adapted to second- ary uses 11” 10; treated ex. hyp. as an organism 2 30. Art, syllogism of = Practical 18 20 (note), 12 35; stimulated by appe- tite, impulse, desire, wish 18 35. Athletes, jump with dumb-bells 5° 15; Swing arms in running 5°15; reasons why 58 15. Atlas, fable of in physicists’ theories 99® 25; a radius twirling the Heavens 99 30; stands on earth 99” 1; force exerted by 99° 1. Automata,compared with organisms 11; strings and levers of )( sinews and bones 15; mechanism de- scribed 11; how different from living organisms 1° 10; not sub- ject to alteration 1? Io. Automatism of body 28 15; chain of connexion, imagination — desire —affection—organic change 2°15. Back, centre of bony system 2? 20. Bandiness, related to troglodyte habits 13% 10; crayfish not char- acterized by 13” 20; nor crab 13° 25. Bat, a quadruped but misshapen 14” Io. Batos v. Ray. Beautiful, the absolutely = prime good οὗ 35. Bees, drifting flight of τοῦ 10; un- sharded 10% Io. Beetle v. Scarabaeus. Before )( Behind v. Dimension. Beginning (ἀρχή) = first step in series of acts 1920. v. Original. Best possible v. ature. Bipeds, defined by distinction of superior from front in movement 6° 25; superior of = superior part of universe 6” 1; are erect 6> 5; man and bird 42 15; man is most natural of 655; birds, how constructed in order to be 10> 15; peculiar ischia of birds 10? 20. Birds (Schizoptera), general struc- ture of 1o 30; bipeds for erect posture Io? 5; superior lighter than inferior parts 10” 5 ; forward part lighter than hind 12» 30; wings = quadruped’s forelegs 12” 203 analogy with Fish 14 20; cannot fly without legs, nor walk without wings 9 25, 120 25; hunch- backed τοῦ 15 ; how able to stand erect 10° 15; not erect like man 10> 30; compared with Eques- trian Statue 10° 15; structure adapted to movement through air 10° 1; limb flexions 11715; flexion at wing base g? 30; lateral attach- ment of wings 138 15; pectoral muscles, explanation of 10° 1; breast bone 10% 30; wings dif- ferent from those of holoptera 1o 153; peculiar ischia 12° 30, 10 20; ground birds τοῦ 10; fly badly, using legs for tail 10% 5; ill-developedtail1010; Rapiores, strength of wing 10% 25; swime- ming-birds, webbed feet, why? 145 10; have lungs 14° 10; legs set back, why? 14? 10; short legs, wide feet 14215. wv. Purple Coot, Fleron, Water-fowl. Bloodless animals, aggregates not single wholes like Sanguinea 7° 1; can live long divided, and preserve power of locomotion (insects) 7 25. wv. Non-Sanguineous. Blushing due to change of tempera- ture 1° 30, Body, none can be infinite 99» 25. Boreas, artist’s representation of 98? 25. Boundary v. Dimension. Boxing, men guard with right hand 6% Breast bone of birds 10° 30. Breeding habits of polypods and Oviparous quadrupeds 13? 20. Burdens, why carried on _ left shoulder 5” 30. Cantharus v. Scarabaeus. Caterpillars, treated as Apoda 5” 25; have right and left 5» 25; undulatory-vertical movement οὗ 25; Centipede, can walk on odd number of limbs 8» 5; lives when divided 7 30; divided parts continue to progress 7® 30. Centre, of organism = heart 1» 25; how related to parts and vice versa 3” 25; potentially multiple 3° 30. “ i | 4 “aes ee ER ΓΒ pease INDEX Cephalopods (Mollusca) have front and back identical insituation6 1. Ceryx (Trumpet-shell) 6% 15. Cestreus, finless species of in lake of Siphae, 8 5. Chafer, drifting flight τοῦ Io. Children, why they cannot stand erect 10” 10; growth of 10° 15; dwarf-like 10” το. Classification of animals according to Dimensions 5 25. Claw of crab, right larger 14° 15. Cold v. Temperature. Coleoptera v. Scarabaeus, Chafer. Combinations of various flexures 12° 1. Compensation, a principle of Nature 145 15. Conception, like Imagination, pro- duces effect = perceived object 10 15; creates forms therefore affections 3 20; affects body’s temperature 1” 35; same concep- tions not always issue in same involuntary reflexes 3° 35. Conclusion = end of syllogism = truth seen or act or creation I Io. Congers, movement of 7° 25; two fins only 84 1. Consciousness, minute changes be- low threshold of 2 1. Contraction due to cold 1 15. Convex and Concave v. Limbds, Curvature of; in flexions 125 15. Coughing = moving a small weight, comes under general mechanical laws οὗ 25. Crab, shape disk-like 13> 25 ; oddest of polypods 12» 15, 13» 10; ob- lique walk of 12° 15, 13” 10, 14° δ; more than one pair of leaders 13> 10, 145; walks in a sense forwards 12” 20; a pedestrian not a swimmer 13° 10, 13” 15, 13° 30; reasons for quaint movements 13” 10, 14 5; troglodyte habit 13> 25 ; keeps on ground 13°25 ; absence of tail 13 25; peduncu- lar eyes 12 15; distinguishes right from left in claws 14°15; side of = hinder part, why? 13° 20; why not bandy-legged 13° 5, 14 1; hard integument 13? Io. Crawling, of children οὗ 10; of wrestlers in palaestra 9? Io. Crayfish, elongated in shape 13° 25 ; tail used in swimming 13° 25; not bandy because a swimmer 13 20. Criss-cross movement of limbs ex- plained 12% 25. wv. Movement. Crocodile, oviparous 13% 15; trog- lodyte 13° 15; legs set obliquely 138 15. Crustacea v. Crabs, Crayfish. Cupid (Eros), artists falsely give wings to 151. Custom )( Nature 3% 35. Cylinders (? part of automata) 1 5. Definition gives cause 381. Desire, formal cause of movement 38 5; middle term or cause 38 5; moves being moved 1° 1 ; causes animal to move on occasion of sensation or imagination 1? 5; medium between object and ac- tion 12 1; related to act and art impulse 18 35; no control over sleep, waking, or respiration 10. Dexterity, all animals dextrous 6 15; man more so than other animals 6% 20. v. Right. Diagrams used by author 2° 25, 3° 30, 75 25, 125 1+. Diameter, movement of radius about centre 15; effect of small move- ment at centre 1225. wv. Aflas. Differentiation, of animals by dimen- sion 6 1; into parts necessary for animal movement 5% 20; Cephalopods and Testacea have front and back identical 6° 1. Dimensions, 3 pairs of 6525; su- perior )( inferior, fore )( hind, right )( left 4° 20; determined by Junction not spatial position 5 30, 6 15; animals classified by 5° 25; apply to all organisms 4> 20; six in number 5% 25; 2 pairs require common original to link them 7” 5; life always involves superior and inferior 5% 25; sovereignty of 615; deter- mined by function in movement 6» 15; superior related to nutri- ment, inferior = excremental parts 5» 1, 6 5; superior that from which food and develop- ment flow 5> 1; animals have 2 pairs, superior, inferior, fore and hind 5 10; fore)( hind determined by sense perception 5” 10, 12” INDEX 15; not distinctions relatively to movement 6” 25; right and left determined by self-movement 5? 15; in movement right and left first to appear, next superior and inferior 78 1; bipeds distinct as to superior and fore 6% 25; of man dimensions more clear and distinct 6% 25; superior and fore identical in quadrupeds, polypods, and apoda 6° 30 ; in molluscs left and right not distinct 14° 5; front and back identical in Testacea 6» 1; crabs distinguish right and left 14> 15 ; hind in crabs = side 13 20; of plants superior the root 65; superior and inferior inverted 5» 1. Divine nature of primum movens oP 35. Domestic cock, tail of 10% 5; bad flier 10° 5. Dwarf-like, meaning of term 10? 15; children so termed Io? Io. Earth, difficulties concerning im- mobility of 00» I+; problem postponed 99° 30; finite 99” 15 ; weight of 99 15; = ground, ful- crum for walking and jumping Earthworms (lit. earth - entrails), movement of οὗ 25; have right and left 5» 25. Eels, movement of 7° 25; two fins only 8 1, 9» Io. Elbow, a local original 2” 10; joint 28 oc. 20 τ, Elements, how related in compound a2, Elephant, flexion of legs 12% 10; popular error about 9° Io. _ End w. Limet. Erect posture, mechanics of τοῦ 5; involves knee joint 9% 10+; man’s upper part long, involves long leg 9215; bird not truly erect like man 10? 30, 12° 30, Eros v. Cupid. Essence of living creature 4” 15. Essentially )( accidentally = by itself 4° 20, Evenness in limbs, why necessary 88 20+. Excrement determines inferior-part 501, wv. Dimension, Expansion due to heat 1? 15. Experience appealed to 3° 5. Experiment, on living animals 85, 14> 10; on birds οὔ 25; shadow on wall οὗ 5. Facts )( theory based on or a priori Faculties, grouped under mind and desire o> 15; purpose equivocal o> 15; judgement οὐ 20; mind includes sensation, imagination, purpose οὔ 15; desire includes will, impulse, appetite, purpose o> 20, Feather wings (of flying insects) laterally attached 13 15. Feet v. Limbs. Fins, function of 9” 10, 14° 1; usually four (viz. the paired fins) 9> 10; laterally attached 13215; flexion at base 9” 30; absence of, in some marine animals 88 1+, 9? I0; eel, conger, and cestreus have two only 9” 10; two only in flatfish g” 10; analogous to wings 14 20. Fire, force of movement of 99” 25. ee Philosophy = Metaphysics Fish, sanguineous, do not respire 14> 1; why apoda 141; fins laterally attached 138 15; flexion at base of fins 9» 30; Flatfish use two fins 9» 10; compensate for missing two 915; have head on one side 14%5; distorted contra naturam 148 5. Flexion, defined 8” 20; necessary to movement 118 5; mechanical reasons for 118 25+ ; four com- binations two by two 1281; mini- mum flexion at least necessary to movement 9? 25; undulation a kind of 9925 ; alternate opposi- tion of 12% 10; of limbs in man )( bird, man )( vivipara 118 10; hip, knee, ankle, shoulder, wrist 12% 15; of legs in elephant excep- tional 12° 10; in birds 9” 30, 12 20; reason for flexion of birds’ legs 12> 30; of oviparous troglodytes 13 15+; reasons for 13> 1+; in polypods oblique 13% 25+; of extreme limbs 135; in flying insects 9? 30; in apoda, a sub- stitute for limbs 7» 10; four flexions = four points of motion 7> 10; in fish 9” 30; of eels fewer INDEX flexions in water than on shore, cf. snakes 88 5. Flight, air yields yet resists 12 15; involves flexion 9” 5. Foot, used technically as = motor limb 68 30; etymology of 6 30. Force (Power), vis inertiae 99° 35; no loss of 995; what moves Heavens must lie beyond 99” 10; possessed by connatural spirit 3° 5. Form, conceived represents object 1 20; = image created by con- ception and imagination 3 20. Forwards, relative to line of vision 12> 15. Fulcrum, for movement relatively fixed 9> 25; necessary to all movement de Motu ch. 1, de Incessu chs. 3 and 9, 5ὃ 5. Function, determines dimensions 5 5+) of webbed feet=fins 14% Io. Galop 12° 30. Gecko 1315. wv. Spotted Lizard. Generation v. Movement. Geometry used for illustration and proof 9? I, 15, 20, 30. Good, absolute )( relative οὔ 35; theoretical )( practical οὐ 20; ac- tual )( apparent o 25 ; apparent = pleasant οὐ 25; in realm of practice is a kind of primum mo- vens 11; moves being unmoved 18 13 good or possible, premiss of practical syllogism 1 20. Goose-skin due to change of tem- perature in heart 1° 30. Grain slips under feet of mice 98> 15. Gravity )( Levity 39 25. Growth v. Movement. Hand, relation to wrist and to stick 2» 5, 128 20; determines flexion of elbow 11° Io. Head, small in birds 10% 30. Heart, seat of soul but distinct from it 3°13; centre of organism 38 10; situated centrally relatively to sense and bony system 2” 15; seat of senses 3°20; correspond- ing part in Bloodless animals 3° 15; change of temperature in, related to affections 281 ; small change in, produces great effect, cf. rudder and prow of ship 1? 25; must have acentral part 3° 1; an individual organism 3” 20; contains vital moisture 3° 25; in- voluntary movement of 3? 5. Heat v. Temperature. Heavens = Universe, eternity of 99” 20; destructible according to some theorists 99°20; mytholo- gical account of movement of 99" 253; cannot be moved from inside 99» 10; Homer as witness to movement of 0? 1. Heron, poor flier 10 10; uses feet . as substitute for tail 10 15. ‘Hip, flexion of 128 15; in crawling ΟὟ 10; tall men’s left hip and right shoulder 7» 20. Holoptera (flying insects), flight of g” 30; flexion at base of scale wing 9? 30. Homer cited as witness in physics Homology, of Birds, Insects, and Fish 13% 1; of wings to forelegs 12 20; of wings and fins 9» 30; in Birds and Fish of wings )( fins pectoral, legs )( fins ventral, tail and tail fin 14° 5. Hop, easier on left leg 5” 30. Horse, galop 12% 30; in religious processions 12 30. Hymenoptera v. Bees and Wasps. Idea produces change in organism 1» 20. Illustration from two men back to back 3° I. Images, of pleasant and painful objects reflected in mind 2? 5; related to memory and anticipa- tion 27 5. Imagination, grouped with Percep- tion and Conception in relation to Desire 1% 25; equivalent to Perception in effect 1» 15; pro- duces effect of object imaged 1° 15; like sensation produces altera- tionandsomovement 15; creates images and therefore affections 3 20; by vivid presentation causes alteration 1°15; reflects pleasure and pain and so causes tempera- ture changes 2 5, 1° 35; effect upon heart and membrum virile 3" 5; not mistress of sleep or breathing 3° 10. v. Faculty. Immovable, as fulcrum not con- tinuous with the moved 98" 15. INDEX Impossible, necessarily )( contin- gently 99°15; to dissolve universe OFS. Impulse related to action and artistic creation 1835. v. Faculty. Incubation related to structure of oviparous quadrupeds 13% 20. Inference follows immediately on conception of premisses 1 Io, Inorganic bodies, cannot move themselves 05; moved by or- ganisms ΟΡ 10; by mutual impact οὔ το; fire, earth, etc. οὗ Io. Insects, flying (Holoptera), are tail- less 10% 5 ; lateral attachment of wings 138 15; sharded (Coleo- ptera) 10% 10; frail drifting flight of 107 10+; insects )(birds Io® 20. Intellect v. Faculty. Intermediate in place of universe 6> τ (and note). Iron used in toys or automata 1? 5. Isosceles triangle used to illustrate walking 9? 20. Joint, function of, in movement 984 15, de /ncessu chs. 3 and 9; me- chanism of 2% 25; involves juxta- position of two material points 98% 20; one potentially, divided nact 98 25,2 20; a beginn ng and end 28 20; compared to centre of diameter 98% 20; pres- sure exerted at 5% 15; athletes press against 52 15. v. Elbow, Knee, Hip, Shoulder. Judgement oP 20. _ Jumping, involves articulation 5820; pressure against upper and lower 5 10; a horse’s galop is a jump 125 30; animals need no limbs 88 20; whole moves at once 88 25+. wv. Movement, Animal. Knee, flexion of 98» 1, 12415; bent to walk 981. Lampreys, move in water like snakes Ὁ 25; finless 8 1. Leech, movement of 9% 25. - Left v. Right, Dimension, Move- ment. Legs, one or three impossible 8? 1 ; form isosceles triangle οὗ 20. Levers v. Automata. Light )( Heavy, in nature 3° 25. Limbs (= feet, techn.), organ of locomotion in animals, why some polypods, some apoda? 45 10+; obliquely attached in birds, fish -and insects 13% 15; curvature of: man’s legs convex )( bird’s con- cave 48 20; laterally and outwards in oviparous quadrupeds 48 20, 4>1; fore and hind opposed in man 4% 20; man’s )( viviparous quadruped’s 4° 20, wv. Flexion. Limit (or term), necessary to organic movement o? 10; to all inorganic motion o? 10; = object or end in organic movement o? 15. Lines divided into straight, curved, zigzag 9® 5. Living things, classified by Dimen- sions 5 25+. Lizard, oviparous troglodyte 13°15; legs attached and bend obliquely 13°15; two kinds mentioned 138 15. Long jump v. Athletes. Mammae, relation to leg-flexion 11° 30. Man, legs relatively stouter and longer 10 10; mechanism of legs and arms 11? 5; functional ex- planation of elbow 11? 10; flexion of limbs 118 15; most natural biped 6” 5 ; moves shoulders when walking 9 25; has left more de- tached, movable, and natural than any animal 68 15 ; better differen- tiated in all motor organs and dimensions 6 25; tall man’s figure 7°15; one-eyed man’s gait 14s: Marine animals, serpentine move- ment like Apoda ashore 7° 25. Mathematics, illustration from 98® 20 ; motion in, a fiction 98 25 ; point has no magnitude 2° 30. Means )( end o 25. Mechanics of erect posture 10? 5 ; of flight 10° 1; of movement 88 30, 8» 25. Membrum virile, an individual organism 3°20; contains mois- ture of life 320; involuntary motions of 3" 5 ; affections cause temperature change in 251. Memory, psychology of 2% 5. Mice walking in grain 98 15. Middle, term of both ends 2” 15. INDEX Minute parts, changes in, are below threshold of consciousness 2° I. Moisture, life-giving, in heart and other member 3? 20. Mollusca, equivocal classification of, between sessile and progressive animals 140 15; are seen to move 14> 20; do not differentiate right and left 14°5; contra naturam 14°15. wv. Cephalopods. ; Movement, general principles of: a point at rest which is ground or original 98 15, >1,9> 25 ; this without the moyer and the moved 99" 5; three terms, unmoved mover, moved mover, unmoving moved 99” 5; of Heavens by primum movens 988 Io, 99% 25+; primum movens or supreme good Immovable 98 10; transcends relation o> 35 +; a fiction in Geometry 98 25; objects of science immovable 110; illustra- tions 98% 20, 2 1+, 91; single not initiated by twofold 99 20; kinds of, are Translation, Altera- tion, Growth οὗ 25; Generation and Decay hypothetically treated as movements οὗ 30; primary movement is translation οὗ 30; of translation primary kind is thrust and pull 4° 20, 38 20; of inorganic things depends (1) on primary causes οὗ 15, (2) on or- ganic bodies οἱ 15 ; small central movement makes great movement at circumference, e.g. rudder and ship 1° 1, 1» 25; circular, of toy- wagon ΡΟ; of automata 1° 1, animal movement, definition of, and formal cause = desire 3° 1, or purpose 1 5, 35; final cause object of desire or intellect = practical end οὔ 20; good, real or apparent (pleasure) 0” 25, 1» 30; material cause=connatural spirit 3 5. psychology of, sense, imagina- tion or intellect cause alteration, this causes desire or purpose o? 15, 15; involves alteration 1° 5 ; desire, the immediate cause 1 35; chain of causation 1 30; same conception not always issuing in action 3” 35; how inhibited 431: definitely limited by ends οὐ 10; contrast with movement of Uni- Vv. AR. M. Α.1. A. verse o 30; kinds of, voluntary, involuntary, non-voluntary 3? 5 ; illustrations 3° 15; sleep, walking, breathing, non-voluntary by-pro- ducts 3°15; heart and membrum virile move involuntarily 3” 5. psychophysical mechanism of; common centre necessary 7 10 ; the heart the organ of soul 3° 1 ; series of changes 2” 20; sensation and alteration 2 20; connatural spirit and its behaviour 3% 5+. mechanics of, general problem stated 4% 10, 88 30, 11% 20, Οὗ Io; involves differentiation into parts or members, 5 20; fixed point 98 15 +, 98" 10, 075, 58 5, de Inc. chs. 3 and 9; an active and a passive 5°20; illustration 2% 30; flexion necessary 8» 25+, 9°15, 9°25, 98°15, 11°25; hencearticu- lation 9815; varieties of, knee, shoulder, hip, elbow, wrist, wing- base, ankle, tail-base (v. Flexion) 981, 8925 +,9%15, 1125; needof centre or common original (heart) 6°20, 20 15 ; involves Dimensions (q.v.) viz. Right and Left 5" 15 ; original and active=right, passive or moved = left ὅδ 1 : alternation 8> τ΄; quaternion or four local points of movement 4° 10, 125 15 et passim; kinds of, jumping 525, 88 20, 95; crawling 9% 10; walking = alternate recovery of former shape 8° 15, 55; in biped involves shoulder action, in bird presence of wings 9°25; galop = a jump 12% 30; flight 80 25, 9° 5, de Inc. ch. το, 98” 15 ; swimming 98> 15, 13% 5, 9° 10; undulation οὗ 25; two kinds, horizontal and vertical οὗ 25, 9° 15; telescopic 925; belongsto 5. par excellence 7 15; of Sanguinea at four points 4 10, 68 25, 741, 1215; bipeds no exception 9 20; why even number necessary 4% 10, 88 25 ; diagonal or criss-cross 80 15+, 45, 7 15, 1225+ ; of Apoda de Inc. chs. 7 and 8, 7°53; of Birds de Jnc. ch. 10, 9” 30, 12°25 (flight is proprium), tail = rudder Ιοῦ 13 webbed feet 14? 53 of Insects de Jnc. ch. 10, 9” 30; better on even limbs 88 30; more than four points 8° 5; of Fish, INDEX οὔ 30, 7 5; four flexions, or two fins and two flexions, or four fins 885; of flatfish οὔ 15,145 5; fins’ function 141; of Centipede and Polypods 85; of Crab 12°15, 13” 10; of Mollusca (proved by observation) 140 10; contrary to Nature 14> 15; Respiration, Coughing, Spitting οὗ 20. wv. Dimensions, Flexion, Right and Let. Object, if imagined or conceived acts like real object 1915 ; reasons 1? 20. Observation )( Theory 988 10, 7°20; appealed to 98°15, 10 10, 5» 30, 7 20, 7° 15, 14° 5, 14° 10, &c. One-eyed men have head twisted 149 5. Organisms, a kind of commonwealth 3° 30 ; symmetry of 2° 10; cen- tralized and differentiated 38 35 ; Moon, men in, invisible to us 99” 15. nature of, like man’s custom 3835; Motion, eternal, of universe 98% 10; effect on, of mere idea 1» 20; how origin of all movement 98° 10. wv. originally moved o 10; structure Movement, Primum Movens. changed by affections 1» 20; Mouth = root of plant 5° 5. automatism of 3” 10 ; affected by Murex (Purpura), 68 15. active and passive elements 4° I, Mutilated animals, flatfish 14° 5; 2°15; alteration in, produced by mollusca, seals, bats 14” Io. temperature changes 1 30, 2915; Mythologists, their fable of Atlas change from moist to solid, hard 99° 25. to soft and vice versa 2" 10; cause Natation, of snakes 881: of eels, lampreys,etc. 7° 30, v. Swimming. Natural, man more than other animals 6% 20; man most of bipeds 6> 5; right superior to left and separate from it natur- ally 6? 20; right naturally same in all creatures 62 10; Sanguinea more than non-sanguineous 7? 5. Sanguinea naturally move at four points 7®5; no movement natur- ally backward 6° 30. Nature, reasonableness of 3° 25, 2>20; purposeful 88 10, 4? 15, 118 15; Nature )( custom 3% 35; an artificer with purpose 27 5, 11715; principles of, de Inc. ch. 2 (note): best of possibles relatively to essence 4°15, δὲ 10; economy 10 30, 14% 15, 16% 15 ; secondary purpose 11> 30, 148 10; Bilateral symmetry 10? 1 ; specialization 62 153 utility 10 25, 10° 20, 11° 30, 1325+ ; homology 9g? 30, 141; serial homology 71; analogy 5515 sovereignty 6 103; is not self-contradictory 118 5; attempts or tends, not always successfully 14515; orders the parts of an organism 3° 1. motion of inorganic bodies o” 10; illustrations of automatism of 2 30, 1 25, 101. Original (or origin), ἀρχή; of move- ment always at rest 981; of movement in organic body o? Io ; centrally situate to four points 75-+ ; in a common part 6° 20; in superior parts 6° 10; of move- ment, the right 6°15 ; more honourable 6> 10 ; determines sovereignty of dimensions 6° 15 ; local originals, how related to true centre 7915 ; in pairs diagon- ally and coordinately arranged 7 10; lie in juncture 625; in birds original of movement from wings 12) 25. Outgrowth upon feather-wings of insects 10 20. Pain causes changes of body’s temperature 2° I. Palaestra 9 10. Pallor due to change of temperature in heart 1? 30. Palpitation 3? 5. Panathenaic procession 12 30, Parts, necessary division into, for movement 5° 20. Passive )( Active 5°25 ; relation to Necessity and impossibility 99” 15. organism 4 1; must have requi- Neck of birds 10% 30, site quantity and quality 4° 1. | Non-sanguineous animals, are poly- | Peacock, bad flier 10% 5; big tail Ἶ pods 13°25; have part analogous 108 5, 20; moults tail 10% 20. | to heart 3°15. wv. Bloodless. Perception, innate in front, so deter- INDEX mines front and back 5°10; )( imagination 1° 15; )( self-actua- lization 1925 ; psychologically = imagination and conception I® 25; followed by desire 1 35 ; effect on heart 2” 20. Periphery, changes at, due to minute heart changes 125; blushing, pallor, shivers, &c. 1° 30. Perpendicular used to explain move- ment 8? 30. Place, tripartite division of 6° 1. Plants, their superior =inferior part of universe 695; no power of locomotion 65; their root = mouth of animal 5% 25, 55; root = superior 5 1, 6” 5. Pleasure = apparent good o? 25; effect on body’s temperature 251. Point, mathematical, has no parts 2> 30; in a joint is a magnitude 2% 30, 20 30; in potency one, in act two 2” 30; in joint )( con- natural spirit 2 Io. Poles, two in number 99 20 ; insub- stantial 99% 20; of sphere of fixed stars conceived in some theories asmere points, resultant absurdity 99 20. Polypods, non-sanguineous 138 25 ; ‘have superior and front identical 6 30; superior of, parallel to middle of universe 6» 1; not erect 65; intermediate legs attached obliquely, flexion upwards 13 25 ; legs more criss-cross 12 10; legs bandied backwards 13%25 ; flexion of two extreme legs 135 ; some always, others when breeding, troglodyte 13 20; can progress on oddnumberof limbs 8” 5; expla- nation of flexion of limbs 13” 20. Popular, error about elephant 9 10; explanation of mechanics of flight 10° 1 Possible (or good), premiss of prac- tical syllogism 18 20 ; best of possibles v. Mature. Potency )( Act, of heart 2» 25; of limbs 2 20 ; of joint 98% 25, 2% 30. Power v. Force. 5 Premiss, conclusion follows at once on conception of two premisses 15 10; minor suppressed in action as in speculation 1 25; of prac- tical syllogism may be the good or possible 18 20. Primum mobile, manner of move- ment o? 5 ‘moved by primum movens o? 5, Primum movens, at rest and immov- able 98 10, 99” 5, 99” 303 how it moves primum mobile explained in Met. 98% το, οὕ 5; force of, greater than inertia of universe 995; is it part of Heavens de Motu ch. 3; discussion of, post- poned οὗ 20; analogy with object of desire or practical reason 1 1. Principles, general, in Natural Science v. Mature, Original; no Sanguinea moved at more than four points 85 Io. Prior, mover to moved o” 1 ; begetter to child o® 1; nothing prior to itself οὔ 1, Problems, of boat movement 98” 20; of wind moving boat 98° 20; solutions 995; of movement of universe de Motu chs. 3 and 4. Procession, horses in religious 12 30. Prow, swerves through wide arc )( extremities of organism 1° 25. Psychology, divisions of soul, viz. (a) judgement, (b) desire οὐ 15. Pull )( Thrust v. Movement. Puppets v. Automata. Purple Coot, bad flyer f!0 Io; characteristic tail Io 15; uses legs as rudder 10° 15. Purpura 68 15. Purpose, partly intellect, partly appe- tite o? 20; moves organism 1° 5 ; connexion with -sense and imagi- nation 195. wv. Faculty. Pythagoras’s theorem 9 I, 9 20. Quadrupeds, not erect 6» 5; have superior and front identical 6% 30 ; superior of = middle of universe 6° τ; viviparous, flexions- of limbs 4% 20, 115 15, 11? 103 ex- planation of 11 10+ ; are San- guineous720; movementof, com- pared with Apoda 7» 20; limbs more criss-cross 4° 1, 128 25+ ; stand with legs criss-cross 12 5 ; seal and bat 14 10; suckling and sheltering young 11530; ovi- parous, lateral attachment of limbs 4° 1, 13% 15, 1315; flexion of limbs 12% 10; bandy-legged 13°20; troglodytes for breeding INDEX and shelter 1315+. v. Crocodile, Lizard, Tortotse, Turtle. Radius v. Diameter. Raptores v. Birds. Ray (Batos), two fins 9” 15 ; undula- tion of 9° 15. Reason not involved in non-volun- tary and involuntary movements 3° 5, 3215. vu. Movement. Respiration, a non-voluntary move- ment 3 5; requires external fulcrum οὗ 20; involves move- ment of weight οὗ 25. Rest, prerequisite of movement 98° 15; point at rest distinct from what moves or is moved 98" 15 ; rest-point in animal =joint 98715, 98” 5,525; vis inertiae balances opposed motion 99° 35. Right )( Left determined by function 515; depends on articulation into two 7” 5; right = original of source of movement 5°15 ; proved empirically 5» 30, 68 1+; identical in all animals 62 10; sovereign even in apoda 715; more de- tached in higher animals, viz. by differentiation of special motor organs 5» 20; distinction seen in crabs 140 15 ; absent in molluscs 14°5 ; right and left symmetrical, and moved simultaneously 2” 10; therefore original of movement not in either 2915. v. Dimensions. Roots, in plants the superior 5? 5 ; = mouth in animals 5” 5. Rudder, comparison of heart with ship’s 15 25. Sand, feet give way in 98° 15. Sanguinea, four points of movement and no more 7° 20, 119 § ; there- fore cannot have wings and arms 118 5; apoda no exception 7? 5 ; die quickly if dismembered 7220; lose power of locomotion 7% 20; unlike insects 7820. Scale-wing in holoptera 9? 30. Schizoptera v. Birds. Seal, a misshapen quadruped 14? Io. Sedentary )( Progressive animals 14°15. Semen, a potency 3°20; an indi- vidual organism 3? 20. Sensations, seated in heart 2°15; produce alteration in body 1°15. Sense v. Perception. Sensorium seated in heart 2? 20. Ship, rudder of, compared to tail 108 I. Shivers due to change of tempera- ture in heart 1° 30. Shoulder, flexion of 12%15; in crawling οὗ 10; right forward in tall men 7” 15; burdens carried on left 5 30, 68 1. Siphae, kind of cestreus found there 85: Sleep, a non-voluntary movement 3° 5. Snake, disproportionate length de- termines limblessness 8 5 +; Sanguineous 815 ; movement of, de Inc. chs. 7 and 8, 9% 25; by flexion at four points 7” 10; criss- cross 70 15, οὔ 1+3 flexion in joints of body 101; move in alternate curves, concave and convex 7” 20; have right and left in body 5» 25 ; mode of swimming de Soul, distinct from yet located in heart 3% 1; original cause of move- ment 3° 1; is it moved? οὔ 1; how it moves body o¥ Io; com- pared to monarch in centre of his city 38 35; not diffused through members 38 35. Sound, necessarily impossible to be seen 99? 15. Sovereignty, principle of, of supe- rior over inferior, right over left, front over back 6? 10. v. Dimen- Stons. Spinal column and bony system related to heart 2° 20. Spirit, connatural de Motu ch. 10; moves being moved 35; related to soul as end point of limb to original point of joint 28 10; active and passive at once 3°5; heavy compared with fire, light with other elements 38 20; how main- tained 325; causes movement without alteration 325; both pulls and thrusts 3 20; excites movement and exerts power 3% 15; permanent or everchanging ? 3°15 3 expands and contracts naturally 3% 20. Spitting = moving a weight οὗ 25; no exception to law of movement INDEX Spotted Lizard (Gecko), oviparous troglodyte 13°15; legs attached laterally and bend obliquely 13 15. Stars, sphere of fixed, moves in circle 99" 15; continuous 99 15. Starting-point)(end 51. v.Original, Movement. Statuary, problem of prancing horses 10> 15, Sternal crest of birds 10 30. Stick, compared to detached mem- ber 2° 5 ; mechanical illustration abr+. Straightening defined 8» 20. Strings, move limbs of puppets 1” 1 ; compared with tendons 1° 5. v. Automata. Structure, of oviparous quadrupeds related to breeding 13% 20; of birds )( quadrupeds 12° 20. Superior )( Inferior v. Dimension. Swimming, kind of progression 988 5, 98° 15; water yields as well as resists 1215; involves flexion 9g? 5; of apoda 851: ; of fish 138 5. 141; of flatfish 9915; of crayfish 13” 30. v. Matation. Syllogism, practical )( speculative 1310 ; examples of practical 1° Ig+. uv. Action. Symmetry of left and right sides in organisms 2” Io, Tail, function of τοῦ 1; bends at point of attachment 10 I; com- pared with tail fin 14> καὶ ; use of, to crayfish 13” 25. Tall men, hollowed back of 7” 20; peculiar gait 715; throw back left hip 7° 15. Telescopic movement of earthworms and leeches 9 25. Temperature of body, changes from without and from within 3°15; affected by conception and imagi- nation 1° 35, 2%5; related to pleasant and painful 2°1; pro- duces alteration 1 15, 1” 25; effects blushing, shivers, &c. 1° 30 ; causes non-voluntary and in- voluntary movements 3” 15. Testacea, spiral-shaped, have front and back identically situated 6” 1; movement of, related to spire 6 15; carry shell to right 68 10; direction of spire 6 Lo. Theory )( Experience 98 10; must agree with empirical data 985 Lo. Thigh of birds 10> 20, 12” 30. Thought )( Action de Motu ch. 7. uv. Action. Thrust )( Pull v. Movement. Tityus, the giant, used to illustrate 98? 20. Tortoises, freshwater, legs laterally attached and bend obliquely, oviparous, troglodytes 138 15. Toys, child’s wagon 1011 +. vw. Automata. Translation, the primary movement οὗ 30 ; cause of growth and altera- tion οὗ 30; last in chain of causes and effects 171; caused by con- natural spirit 38 25. Troglodyte habits of oviparous quadrupeds 138 15 +, of crab 13” 28. Trot, normal movement of horse 12 30. Trumpet-shell (Ceryx) 67 15. Turtles, legs laterally attached, bend obliquely, oviparous, troglodytes 13° 15. Undulation, mode of movement, explained geometrically 9” 1; used by eels and ray 9°15; tall men 7515; snakes 7°5+,9% 25; cater- pillars 9? 25 ; water animals 7° 25. Universe, movement of 98° το; eternal οὐ 30; from without 99” 30; dissolution of 99” 20; difficulty resolved οὗ 5; determining di- mension )( function 55, 61 +. Vessel, clipper built (felucca), prow of compared to sternal crest 10 30; rudderless, course of, com- pared to drift of insect’s flight 10 5; cargo boat using oars 10 20. Vivisection 8" 5, 9 25, 14° 10. Wasps, drifting flight of τοῦ 10; un- sharded 10% 10. Water, fulcrum for swimming 98? 1S. Waterfowl, poor flyers, character- istic tail τοῦτο ; use legs as rudder 107 15. Will v. Faculty. Winged animals, why footed 14° 20. INDEX Wings )( arms 6 25; laterally attached 13°15; )( fins 14 20; laterally attached 138 5; how used 9>10; why impossible to man 1141; )( feather wings of holoptera 107 15. Wish related to action and art impulse 14 35. Wrestlers, crawling in sand 9° Io. Wrist, flexion of 12 15; relation to hand 201, 5215; to elbow 2°10; leaned upon by running athletes 5°15. Zigzag, kind of line 9% 5; shadow on wall 9° 5. Zoophytes (Ὁ), sedentary 14” 15; compared with Molluscs 14? 15. DE GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM BY ARTHUR PLATT M.A. PROFESSOR OF GREEK IN UNIVERSITY COLLEGE LONDON LATE FELLOW OF TRINITY COLLEGE CAMBRIDGE OXFORD Ἢ AT THE CLARENDON PRESS T9gIto HENRY FROWDE, M.A. PUBLISHER TO THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD LONDON, EDINBURGH, NEW YORK TORONTO AND MELBOURNE | TO ΡΟ, oe es PREFACE THIS translation has been made from Bekker’s octavo text, Oxford, 1837. I have also used Aubert and Wimmer’s edition, with German translation and notes, Leipzig, 1860, referred to by me as ‘AW.’. I must confess to finding this work somewhat disappointing ; the translation often fails to make the connexion of thought intelligible, and the notes are very scanty and sometimes incorrect. Much greater is my debt to Dr. Ogle’s Aristotle on the Parts of Animals, London, 1882; without this model before me I should never have-ventured on so hazardous an enterprise. References to his Introduction are given with his name and the Roman numeral of the page (e.g. ‘see Ogle, p. xxix’), to his notes with the pages and lines of the Berlin edition (e.g. ‘Ogle on 641» 17’) References to the work of G. H. Lewes, named Aristotle, are given as ‘ Lewes’ with the sections of the book, which I take this opportunity of remarking to be full of scandalous blunders and thoroughly untrust- worthy, at least where Aristotle’s meaning is concerned. The Greek medical writers are referred to by the volume and page of Kiihn’s edition, the question of their exact authorship being of course left open. My endeavour has been throughout to represent as exactly as possible what Aristotle said or meant to say; to this I have sacrificed all graces of style, comforted a little by knowing that the author himself would have been the Jast man in the world to complain. Whenever Bekker’s reading has been deserted the reading preferred is given ina note; if it has MS. authority I say e.g. ‘reading dAdo’, if it is a conjecture by another scholar the name of the author is added, if it be a new conjecture I say ‘ Read’ or ‘I read’ whatever it may be. The pleasant duty remains of thanking many friends and others who have assisted me in various ways. In particular vi PREFACE Professor J. P. Hill has read through the proofs and helped me on zoological questions, Dr. George Blacker made me several communications on medical points, and Dr. Ogle has made me still further his debtor by talking over some passages with me and correcting some errors. My obligations to others are acknowledged in the proper places in the notes. From the Aristotelian point of view Mr. W. D. Ross has gone through the translation minutely and caused me to improve it in many places. The Index has been made by Mr. A. W. Kappel. With regard to the information in the notes, I have been thankful to get it wherever I could. If some of it is not exactly up to date, it is all at any rate two thousand years later than Aristotle, and compared to that interval of time what are a few years more or less? And, should any man of science come fresh to the reading of this treatise, he will, I think, be amazed and delighted to see what grasp and insight Aristotle displays in handling questions which still absorb us after all that time. If we smile at some parts, and those very considerable parts, of the discussion, especi- ally at all the importance attached to ‘form’ and ‘matter’, and at the curious depreciation of the female sex, let us remember that most of these oddities were accepted by no less a man than William Harvey, and that Darwin wrote with generous enthusiasm concerning another of the zoologi- cal works: ‘Linnaeus and Cuvier have been my two gods, though in very different ways, but they were mere school- boys to old Aristotle’ (Life and Letters, vol. iii, p. 252). CONTENTS The arrangement of this treatise is somewhat confused and there is much repetition in it. But the following table may give the reader a view of the course of the discussion and of the more important subjects discussed. There are four main parts :— PaRT I (Books I, II down to 737} 24) General view of the subject. Section I. The generative organs. The generative secretions, and the Aristotelian theory of sex-generation. Miscellaneous, partly developing questions already raised, partly introductory to Part II. PART II (Book II 73725 to end of Book III) Detailed account of generation in the different classes of animals. PART III (Book IV) Essays on various questions connected with generation. PaRT IV (Book V) ~ Development after birth, and distinctions between individuals of the same species. These four parts are laid out as follows :— PART I SECTION I Book I, ch. i. Introduction. ii. The sexes and sexual parts. iii. Testes and uterus in different classes of animals. iv-vii. Male organs in various classes of vertebrates (sam- guinea). viii-xi. Female organs and methods of producing young in the vertebrata. xii, xiii. Further remarks on the organs of the vertebrata. xiv-xvi. Generative organs, sexual and spontaneous genera- tion, in the invertebrata. SECTION II BOOK I. xvii, xviii. Semen. Criticism of the -Hippocratic theory of pangenesis. xix, xx, The catamenia. xxi, xxii, The Aristotelian theory of sexual generation, xxiii, Conclusion to this Section, viii Book II. ch. i. il. ili. iv. BOOK II. ch. iv. v. vi. Vil. Vili. BOOKIII.ch.i, ii. iil-v. Vi, Vii. viii. 1X: xX, x1, BOOK IV. ch.i, ii. 111. iv. V. vi. Vil. BOOK IV. ch. viii. CONTENTS SECTION III (73118) Reason for the existence of sexes. (7328 25) Classification of animals in relation to generation. (73323) Development of the embryo. Praeforma- tion and epigenesis. The nature of semen. ‘Soul’ in the semen and the fertilized germ. (7370 8) Note (misplaced ?) on various classes of animals. PART II (73725) Generation in man and other vivipara. (739” 33) Development and nutrition of the embryo. Digression on the necessity of fertilization by the male. Development of the embryo continued. (74522) Nutrition of the embryo continued. (7468 29) Hybrids and sterility. Mules. Birds. Fish. Miscellaneous observations. Cephalopoda, &c. Insects. Bees. Testacea. Note on the origin of man and quad- rupeds. PART III Causes of sex in the embryo. (767% 36) Heredity. (769 10) Teratology. Teratology continued. Number of young produced at a birth. Superfoetation. Varying state of development in the young at birth. Regeneration. Mola uteri. Milk. ix. Why animals are born head foremost. x. The period of gestation. Book V.. ὁ 1: il. ili—v. vi. vii. Viii. PART IV Distinction between characters that exist for a final cause and those that exist by ‘ Necessity’. Con- dition of the embryo and of the infant. Differences in the eye. Sight. Hearing. Hair: Colours of animals. The voice. Teeth, Ι WE have now discussed the other parts! of animals, both 7155 generally and with reference to the peculiarities of each kind,? explaining how each part exists on account of such a cause, and I mean by this the final cause.® There are four causes underlying everything: first, the final cause, that for the sake of which a thing exists ; secondly, the formal cause, the definition of its essence (and these two we may regard pretty much as one and the same) ; thirdly, the material; and fourthly, the moving principle or efficient cause. We have then already discussed the other three causes, for the definition and the final cause are the same, and the material of animals is their parts—of the whole animal the non-homogeneous parts, of these again the homogeneous, τὸ and of these last the so-called elements of all matter.2 It remains to speak of those parts which contribute to the generation of animals and of which nothing definite has yet been said,® and to explain what is the moving or efficient cause. To inquire into this last and to inquire into the generation of each animal is in a way the same thing ; and, therefore, my plan has united them together, arranging " 1 i, 6. the parts not concerned in generation. ? j.e. each kind of animals (see de Partibus, ad fin.), kind meaning sometimes what we should now calla species, sometimes a class of any wider extent. art.’ final cause is simply to exist in the most perfect form possible. 5 A. assumes all parts to be homogeneous which appear such to the naked eye. His division into homogeneous and non-homogeneous corresponds to Bichat’s distinction of tissues and organs. Bonee.g. is homogeneous; a hand is composed of the’ homogeneous parts, flesh, sinew, bone, &c., and is thus itself heterogeneous. ® Much has been said of them in H. A. however. AR, Gy As B

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