Greco-Christian stream·Opera Omnia Sancti Thomae (Complete Works of Thomas Aquinas)·Summa Contra Gentiles·Liber II
Source context
- Theme
- creation of the world and the nature of corporeal substance under divine causality
- Soul-faculty
- Intellectual Soul
Steiner
- GA 237, 1924-07-13Steiner references the Summa contra Gentiles as a characteristic work arising from the scholastic impulse to defend Catholic faith against non-Christian thought, situating Aquinas's project within the karmic stream of medieval intellectual development.
- GA 108, 1908-03-14Steiner identifies scholastic philosophy as a synthesis of Aristotelian thought that is widely maligned but little understood, noting its role in processing empirical and spiritual knowledge through rigorous conceptual technique — directly relevant to Liber II's rational demonstration of creation.
- GA 213, 1922-07-15Steiner commends the precision of scholastic thinking and regards it as a standard of conceptual sharpness that modern natural science has failed to maintain, an assessment pertinent to Aquinas's systematic argumentation on the origin of corporeal being in Liber II.
Cross-tradition
- Neoplatonic emanationism (Plotinus, Proclus)Aquinas's demonstration in Liber II that creation is a free act of divine will rather than necessary emanation marks a structural divergence from Neoplatonic procession-doctrines, constituting a cross-tradition congruence on the question of cosmological origination while preserving a distinct ontological boundary.
- Islamic Kalam (Avicenna, al-Ghazali)Liber II engages the Islamic philosophical tradition's treatments of creation ex nihilo and the eternity of the world, showing cross-tradition congruence with Kalam arguments for temporal origination while rejecting Avicennian necessary emanation.
- Aristotelian hylomorphismAquinas's account of corporeal substance in Liber II deploys Aristotelian matter-form composition as the structural framework for distinguishing created from uncreated being, exhibiting cross-tradition congruence with Aristotle's Physics and Metaphysics on the principles of natural bodies.
Summa Contra Gentiles, Liber II
Caput 1
[lib.2.cap.1.n.1] CHAPTER I—Connexion of what follows with what has gone before.
THERE can be no perfect knowledge of anything unless its activity be known: for from the mode of activity proper to a thing, and the species to which it belongs, the measure and quality of its power is estimated; and the power shows the nature of the thing, for each thing is naturally active according to the nature with which it is actually endowed. But there is a twofold activity: one immanent in the agent, and a perfection of his, as feeling, understanding and willing; the other passing out to an exterior thing, and a perfection of the thing made and constituted thereby, as warming, cutting and building. Both of these acts are proper to God: the first, inasmuch as he understands, wills, rejoices and loves; the second inasmuch as He produces and brings things into being, conserves and governs them. Of the first act of God we have spoken in the previous book, treating of the divine knowledge and will. It remains now to treat of the second action, whereby things are produced and governed by God.
[lib.2.cap.1.n.1] Continuatio sequentium ad precedentia. Meditatus sum in omnibus operibus tuis: in factis manuum tuarum meditabar, Psalm. cxlii, 5. Rei cujuslibet perfecta cognitio haberi non potest, nisi ejus operatio cognosca-tur. Ex modo enim operationis et specie, mensura et qualitas virtutis pensatur. Virtus vero naturam rei monstrat; secundum hoc enim unumquodque natum est operari, quod actu talem naturam sortitur. Est autem duplex rei operatio, ut Philosophus tradit, Metaphys. IX, c. ix: Una quidem, quæ in ipso operante manet et est ipsius operantis perfectio, ut sentire, intelligere et velle; alia vero, quæ in exteriorem rem transit, quæ est perfectio facti quod per ipsam constituitur, ut calefacere, secare et aedificare. Utraque autem dictarum operationum competit Deo: Prima quidem, in eo quod intelligit, vult, gaudet et amat; alia vero, in eo quod res in esse producit et eas conservat et regit. Quia vero prima operatio perfectio operantis est, secunda vero perfectio facti, agens autem naturaliter prius facto est et « In primo sententiarum agitur de Deo sive principio qui est omnium causa, hoc est de eo quod est principium et causa; in secundo secundum rationem principii et causæ, hoc est de principio in quantum est principium et causa. Est autem Deus omnium causa efficiens formalis et finalis, efficiens et finalis simpliciter Apoc. 1: Ego Sum Alpha et Omega, sed formalis non simpliciter, quia causa formalis simpliciter est de essentia rei, sicut materialis; sed est causa exterior quæ potest esse in eodem numero cum aliis duabus. Quod enim dicit Philosophus II Phys. quod licet tres causæ coincidant in unum, non tamen in unum numero, verum est de causa formali quæ est perfectio rei, efficiente et finali Licet secundum Hugonem de S. Vict. in Speculo Ecclesiæ, c. ix, materia divinarum scripturarum sint opera reparationis, scilicet Incarnatio Verbi, cum omnibus sacramentis; aliarum vero scientiarum opera conditionis, scilicet conditioni mundi cum omnibus elementis suis, tamen ut competentius ad tractandum opera restaurationis accedatur, primum in ipso capite Scripturæ narratur constitutio operum reparandorum, Gen. 1. Non enim convenienter ostendere posset qualiter homo reparatus sit, nisi prius ostenderet qualiter sit lapsus, nec lapsum e converso convenienter ostenderet, nisi prius qualiter a Deo institutus fuerat explicaret. Et secundum hoc intentio sacrae Scripturæ habet convenientissime praeambulam constitutionem et lapsum hominis, intentionem vero principalem reparationem hominis, et secundum hoc videtur procedere inquisitio libri Sententiarum, ut inquisitio primi et secundi referatur ad conditionem et lapsum hominis, tertii et quarti ad reparationem hominis. Sed in primo est inquisitio de ipso principio conditionis, in secundo vero de ipsa conditione et lapsu hominis. Si in tertio agitur de principio reparationis hominis. In quarto de ipsa reparatione. Sed quare tunc agitur hic de conditione et lapsu anterius? ut magis appareat divina justitia, et reparationis humanæ ruinæ congruentia. » (Ex cod. G. de F.) causa ipsius, oportet quod prima dictarum operationum sit ratio secundæ et eam praecedat naturaliter, sicut causa effectum; quod quidem in rebus humanis manifeste apparet; consideratio enim et voluntas artificis principium est et ratio aedificationis. Prima igitur dictarum operationum, tanquam simplex operantis perfectio, operationis vindicat sibi nomen vel etiam actionis; secunda vero, eo quod sit perfectio facti, factionis nomen assumit; unde 1 manufacta dicuntur quæ, per actionem hujusmodi, ab artifice in esse procedunt. De prima autem Dei operatione in precedenti libro (a, cap. xliv. usque ad fin). jam diximus, ubi est actum de cognitione et voluntate divina. Unde, ad completam divinæ veritatis considerationem, restat nunc de secunda operatione tractare, per quam scilicet res producuntur et gubernantur a Deo. Quem quidem ordinem ex praemissis verbis sumere possumus. Præmittit namque primæ operationis meditationem, quum dicit: Meditatus sum in omnibus operibus tuis, ut operatio ad divinum intelligere vel velle referatur. Subjungit vero factionis meditationem, quum dicit: In factis manum tuaruum meditabar, ut, per facta manus Ipsius, intelligamus cælum et terram et omnia quæ procedunt in esse a Deo, sicut ab artifice manufacta procedunt.
Caput 4
[lib.2.cap.4.n.1] CHAPTER IV—That the Philosopher and the Theologian view Creatures from Different Standpoints
HUMAN philosophy considers creatures as they are in themselves: hence we find different divisions of philosophy according to the different classes of things. But Christian faith considers them, not in themselves, but inasmuch as they represent the majesty of God, and in one way or another are directed to God, as it is said: Of the glory of the Lord his work is full: hath not the Lord made his saints to tell of his wonders? (Ecclus xlii, 16, 17.) Therefore the philosopher and the faithful Christian (fidelis) consider different points about creatures: the philosopher considers what attaches to them in their proper nature: the faithful Christian considers about creatures only what attaches to them in their relation to God, as that they are created by God, subject to God, and the like. Hence it is not to be put down as an imperfection in the doctrine of faith, if it passes unnoticed many properties of things, as the configuration of the heavens, or the laws of motion. And again such points as are considered by philosopher and faithful Christian alike, are treated on different principles: for the philosopher takes his stand on the proper and immediate causes of things; but the faithful Christian argues from the First Cause, showing that so the matter is divinely revealed, or that this makes for the glory of God, or that God’s power is infinite. Hence this speculation of the faithful Christian ought to be called the highest wisdom, as always regarding the highest cause, according to the text:
This is your wisdom and understanding before the nations (Deut. iv, 6). And therefore human philosophy is subordinate to this higher wisdom; and in sign of this subordination divine wisdom sometimes draws conclusions from premises of human philosophy. Further, the two systems do not observe the same order of procedure. In the system of philosophy, which considers creatures in themselves and from them leads on to the knowledge of God, the first study is of creatures and the last of God; but in the system of faith, which studies creatures only in their relation to God, the study is first of God and afterwards of creatures; and this is a more perfect view, and more like to the knowledge of God, who, knowing Himself, thence discerns other beings. Following this latter order, after what has been said in the first book about God in Himself, it remains for us to treat of the beings that come from God.
[lib.2.cap.4.n.1] Quod aliter considerat de creaturis Philosophus, et aliter Theologus. Manifestum est autem, ex prædictis, A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J omittun: «Aliter.» quod considerationem circa creaturas habet doctrina fidei christianæ, in quantum in eis resultat quædam Dei similitudo, et in quantum error in ipsis inducit in divinorum errorem; et sic alia ratione subjiciuntur prædictæ doctrinæ et philosophiæ humanæ. Nam philosophia humana eas considerat secundum quod hujusmodi sunt, unde et secundum diversa rerum genera diversæ partes philosophiæ inveniuntur; fides autem christiana eas considerat, non in quantum hujusmodi, ut pote ignem in quantum ignis est, sed in quantum divinam altitudinem repræsentat et in ipsum Deum quoquomodo ordinatur; ut enim dicitur: Gloria Domini plenum est opus ejus. Nonne Dominus fecit Sanctos enarrare omnia mirabilia sua. Eccli? xlii, 16, 17? Et propter hoc etiam, alia et alia circa creaturas et philosophus et fidelis considerant; philosophus namque considerat illa quæ eis secundum naturam propriam conveniunt, sicut igni ferri sursum; fidelis autem ea solum considerat circa creaturas, quæ eis conveniunt secundum quod sunt ad Deum relata, ut pote quod sunt a Deo creata, quod sunt Deo subjecta, et hujusmodi. Unde non est imperfectioni doctrinæ fidei imputandum, si multas rerum proprietates prætermittat, ut cæli figuram, motus qualitatem; sic enim nec naturalis circa lineam illas passiones considerat quas geometra, sed solum ea quæ accidunt sibi, in quantum est terminus corporis naturalis. Si qua vero circa creaturas communiter a philosopho et fideli considerantur, per alia et alia principia traduntur. Nam philosophus argumentum assumit ex propiis rerum causis; fidelis autem ex causa prima, utputa quia sic divinitus est traditum, vel quia hoc in gloriam Dei cedit, vel quia Dei potestas est infinita. Unde et ipsa maxima sapientia dici debet, utpote semper altissimam causam considerans, secundum illud: Hæc est enim vestra sapientia et intellectus coram populis, Deuter. iv, 6; et propter hoc ipsi, quasi principali, philosophia humana deservit. Et ideo interdum ex principiis philosophiæ humanæ sapientia divina procedit; nam, et apud philosophos, prima — Notula cod. — Notula cod. philosophia utitur omnium scientiarum documentis ad suum propositum ostendendum. Exinde etiam est quod non eodem ordine utraque doctrina procedit. Nam in doctrina philosophiæ, quæ creaturas secundum se considerat et ex eis in Dei cognitionem perducit, prima est consideratio de creaturis et ultima de Deo; in doctrina vero fidei, quæ creaturas nonnisi in ordine ad Deum considerat, primo est consideratio Dei, et postmodum creaturarum; et sic est perfectior, utpote Dei cognitioni similior, qui seipsum cognoscens alia intuetur. Unde, secundum hunc ordinem, post ea quæ de Deo in se, in primo libro, sunt dicta, de his quæ ab ipso sunt restat prosequendum.
Caput 5
[lib.2.cap.5.n.1] CHAPTER V—Order of Matters to be Treated
THE order of our treatise will be to deal first with the production and bringing of things into being (Chapp VI-XXXVIII); secondly with the distinction of things (Chapp. XXXIX-XLV); thirdly, with the nature of things thus produced and distinct so far as it appertains to the truth of faith (Chapp. XLVI-CI).
[lib.2.cap.5.n.1] Ordo dicendorum Erit autem hic prosecutionis ordo, ut primo agamus de productione rerum in esse (c. vi-xxxiii); secundo, de earum distinctione, (c. xxix-xlv); tertio vero, de ipsarum rerum productarum et distinctarum natura (c. xlvi ad fin.) quantum ad fidei pertinet veritatem.
Caput 6
[lib.2.cap.6.n.1] CHAPTER VI—That it belongs to God to be to other Beings the Principle of Existence
IN inferior agents it is a sign of attained perfection, when they can produce their own likeness. But God is sovereignly perfect (B.I. Chap. ). Therefore it belongs to Him to make some being like Himself in actual existence.
6. The more perfect any principle of activity is, the wider its sphere of action. But that pure actuality, which is God, is more perfect than actuality mingled with potentiality, such as is in us. Now actuality is the principle of action. Since then by the actuality which is in us, we are not only capable of immanent acts, such as understanding and willing, but also of acts tending to exterior things and productive of effects, much more can God, by virtue of His actuality, not only understand and will, but also produce an effect.
Hence it is said: Who maketh great and wonderful and inscrutable works without number (Job v. 9).
[lib.2.cap.6.n.1] Quod Deo competit esse aliis principium essendi. Supponentes igitur quæ in superioribus ostensa sunt, ostendamus nunc quod competit Deo ut sit aliis essendi principium et causa. 1. Ostensum est enim supra (l. I, c. xiii) per demonstrationem Aristotelis, esse aliquam primam causam efficientem, quam Deum dicimus. Efficiens autem causa suos effectus conducit ad esse. Deus igitur aliis causa essendi exsistit. 2. Item, Ostensum est (l. I, c. xiii) per rationem ejusdem, esse aliquod primum movens immobile, quod Deum dicimus. Primum autem movens, in quolibet ordine motuum, est causa omnium motuum quisunt illius ordinis. Quum igitur multa ex motibus cœli producantur in esse, in quorum ordine Deum esse primum movens ostensum est (ubi sup.), oportet quod Deus sit multis rebus causa essendi. 3. Amplius, Quod per se alicui convenit, naturaliter ei inesse necesse est; sicuthomini rationale et igni sursum moveri. Agere autem per se aliquem effectum convenit enti in actu; nam unumquodque agens secundum hoc agit quod in actu est. Omne igitur ens actu, natum est agere aliquid actu exsistens. Sed Deus est ens actu, ut ostensum est (l. I, c. xvi). Igitur ipsi competit agere aliquid ens actu, cui sit causa essendi. 4. Adhuc, Signum perfectionis in rebus inferioribus est quod possunt sibi similia facere, ut patet per Philosophum, Meteor. IV, c. iet ii. Deus autem est maxime perfectus ut ostensum est, l. l, c. xxviii. Ipsi igitur competit facere aliquid sibi simile ens in actu, ut sic sit causa essendi. 5. Item, Ostensum est (l. I, c. lxxxii), quod Deus vult suum esse aliis communicare per modum similitudinis. De perfectione autem voluntatis est quod sit actionis et motus principium, ut patet in tertio de anima, c. x. Quum igitur divina voluntas sit perfecta, non deerit ei virtus communiciandi esse suum alicui per modum similitudinis; et sic erit ei causa essendi. 6. Adhuc, Quanto alicujus actionis principium est perfectius, tanto actionem suam potest in plura extendere et magis remota; ignis enim, si sit debilis, solum propinqua calefacit; si autem sit fortis, etiam remota. Actus autem purus, qui Deus est, perfectior est quam actus potentiæ permixtus, sicut in nobis est; actus autem actionis principium est. Quum igitur, per actum qui in nobis est, possimus non solum in actiones in nobis manentes, sicut sunt intelligere et velle, sed etiam in actiones quæ in exteriora tendunt, per quas aliqua facta producimus, multo magis Deus potest, per hoc quod actu est, non solum intelligere et velle, sed etiam producere effectum; et sic potest aliis esse causa essendi. Hinc est quod dicitur: Qui facit magna et inscrutabilia et mirabilia absque numero, Job, v, 9.
Caput 7
[lib.2.cap.7.n.1] CHAPTER VII—That there is in God Active Power
AS passive power, or passivity, follows upon being in potentiality, so active power follows upon being in actuality; for everything acts by being in actuality, and is acted upon by being in potentiality. But it belongs to God to be in actuality; and therefore there is suitably ascribed to Him active power, but not passive power.
Hence it is said: Thou art powerful, O Lord (Ps. lxxxviii, 9); and Thy power and thy justice, O God, are even to the highest heaven, in the wonders that thou hast made (Ps. lxx, 18, 19).
[lib.2.cap.7.n.1] Quod potentia activa sit in Deo. (I, q. xxv, a. i, De pot. q. i, ante.) Ex hoc autem apparet quod Deus est potens, et quod ei convenienter potentia activa attribuitur. Deus per eam agat, non tamen superfluit poten- 1. Potentia enim activa est principium agendi in aliud, secundum quod est aliud. Deo autem convenit esse aliis principium essendi. Ergo convenit sibi esse potentem. 2. Amplius, Sicut potentia passiva, sequitur ens in potentia, ita potentia activa sequitur ens in actu; unumquodque enim ex hoc agit quod est actu, patitur vero ex eo quod est potentia. Sed Deo convenit esse actu. Igitur convenit sibi potentia activa. 3. Adhuc, Divina perfectio omnium perfectiones in se includit, ut ostensum est (l. I, c. xxviii). Virtus autem activa de perfectione rei est; unumquodque enim tanto majoris virtutis inventur, quanto perfectius est. Virtus igitur activa Deo non potest deesse. 4. Præterea, Omne quod agit potens est agere; nam quod non potest agere, impossibile est agere; et quod impossibile est agere, necesse est non agere. Deus autem est agens et movens, ut supra (l. I, c. xxiii, ostensum est. Igitur potens est agere, et potentia ei convenienter adscrititur activa, sed non passiva. Hinc est quod dicitur: Potens es, Domine, Psalm. lxxxviii, 9; et alibi: Potentiam tuam... usque in altissima quæ fecisti magnalia, Psalm. lxx, 18,19.
Caput 8
[lib.2.cap.8.n.1] CHAPTER VIII—That God’s Power is His Substance
ACTIVE power belongs to the perfection of a thing. But every divine perfection is contained in God’s own being (B. I, Chap. ). God’s power therefore is not different from his being. But God is His own being (B. I, Chap. ); He is therefore His own power.
4. In things the powers of which are not their substance, the said powers are accidents. But there can be no accident in God (B. I, Chap. ), who is therefore his own power.
[lib.2.cap.8.n.1] Quod Dei potentia sit ejus substantia. I, q. xxv, a. i, De dot. q. i, a. i, ad 5^{nm}. Ex hoc autem ulterius concludi potest quod divina potentia sit ipsa Dei substantia. tia; quia potentia non intelligitur quasi quoddam additum supra essentiam, sed superaddit secundum intellectum solam relationem principii. Ipsa enim essentia ex hoc quod est principium agendi habet rationem potentiæ, huic autem relationi respondet aliquid in re mediate, non immediate; intellectus enim noster intelligit creaturam cum aliqua relatione et dependentia ad Creatorem; et quia non potest intelligere aliquid relatum alteri nisi e converso reintelligat relationem ex opposito, ideo intelligit in Deo quamdam relationem principii quæ consequitur modum intelligendi, et sic refertur ad rem mediate; potentia autem quæ est in specie qualitatis non attribuitur Deo qui agit immediate per suam essentiam, sed creaturis, quæ non immediate sed mediantibus formis accidentalibus agunt. » (Ex cod. G. de F.) « Potentia Dei semper est conjuncta actui, id est operationi, quia operatio est divina essentia, sed effectus sequitur secundum imperium voluntatis et ordinem sapientia; unde non oportet quod semper sit conjuncta effectui, nec quod creaturæ fuerint ab æterno. » (Ex cod. G, de F.) « Quod ergo distinctum est per aliquid sibi adjunctum oportet esse finitum, quia illud adjunctum determinat ipsum ad aliud; sed Deus non per aliud sed per seipsum distinctus est ab omnibus aliis, et hoc eo ipso quod nihil ei potest addi; unde non oportet quod sit finitus, neque ipse, neque aliquid quod in ipso significatur. Finis tamen cum sit perfectionis, ei nobilissimo modo attribuimus, scilicet ut ipse essentialiter sit finis non denominatione finitus, licet impossibile sit aliquam creaturam producere effectus infinitos, quoniam est de se secundum aliquid, utpote secundum numerum in eadem specie; et sic omnium illorum effectuum natura est finita, scilicet ad unam speciem determinata, non est tamen possibile ut sit aliqua creatura quæ possit in effectus modis omnibus infinitos et secundum numerum et secundum speciem et secundum genera. Sed hoc est solius Dei, et ideo sola ejus potentia est simpliciter infinita. » (Ex cod. G, de F.)
Caput 9
[lib.2.cap.9.n.1] CHAPTER IX—That God’s Power is His Action
GOD’S power is His substance, as has been shown in the previous chapter: also His action is His substance, as has been shown of His intellectual activity (B. I, Chap. ), and the same argument holds of His other activities. Therefore in God power and action are not two different things.
2. The action of any being is a complement of its power; for it stands to power as the second actuality to the first. But the divine power, being God’s very essence, has no other complement than itself. And therefore in God action and power are not distinct.
4. Any action that is not the agent’s very substance is in the agent as an accident in its subject. But in God there can be nothing accidental. Therefore in God His action is none other than His substance and His power.
[lib.2.cap.9.n.1] Quod Dei potentia sit ejus actio. Ex hoc autem ostendi potest quod potentia Dei non sit aliud quam sua actio. 1. Quæ enim uni et eidem sunt eadem, sibi invicem sunt eadem. Divina autem potentia est ejus substantia, ut ostensum est (c. viii); ejus etiam actio est ejus substantia, ut ostensum est(l. I, c. xlv) de intellectuali operatione; eadem enim ratio in aliis competit. Igitur in Deo non est aliud potentia, et aliud actio. 2. Item, Actio alicujus rei est quoddam complementum potentiae ejus; comparatur enim ad potentiam sicut actus secundus ad primum. Divina autem potentia non completur alia quam seipsa, quum sit ipsa Dei essentia. In Deo igitur non est aliud potentia, et aliud actio. 3. Amplius, Sicut potentia activa est aliquid agens, ita essentia ejus est aliquid ens. Sed divina potentia est ejus essentia, ut ostensum est (c. viii). Ergo « Cum potentia activa sequatur actum, quantitas potentiae sequitur quantitatem actus; unum quodque enim tantum abundat in virtute agendi quantum est in actu. Deus autem est actus infinitus, quia actus finitur aut ex parte agentis aut ex parte recipientis. Sic autem divinus actus non finitur, quia non est ab alio, sed a seipso; nihil etiam potentiae passivæ ei admiscretur, sed est actus purus non receptus in aliquo, et sic non limitatur ad aliquem modum perfectionis essendi; ex quo patet quod virtus ejus et potentia activa est infinita. Quamvis autem potentia infinitatem habeat ex essentia, ex hoc ipso etiam quod comparatur ad ea quorum est principium, recipit quemdam modum infinitatis quem essentia non habet. Potentiæ enim activæ potest attribui quædam infinitas secundum conformitatem ad infinitatem quantitatis contentæ et discretæ; discretæ quidem secundum quod quantitas potentiae attenditur in multa vel pauca objecta, et hæc vocatur quantitas extensiva; contentæ, secundum quod quantitas potentiae attenditur ex hoc quod remisse vel intense agit, et hæc vocatur intensiva. Prima autem qualitas convenit potentiae respectu objectorum, secunda respectu actionis; istorum enim duorum activa potentia est principium et utroque modo divina potentia infinita, nam numquam tot effectus facit quin plures facere possit; nec umquam tam intense operatur quin possit intensius operari. Sed intensio in operatione divina non est attendenda secundum quod operatio est in operante, quia sic semper est infinita, cum operatio sit divina essentia, sed attendenda est secundum quod attin- XII. suum agere est suum esse. Sed ejus esse est sua substantia. Et sic ut prius, ergo divina actio est sua substantia. 4. Adhuc, Actio quæ non est substantia agentis inest ei sicut accidens subjecto; unde et actio inter novem prædicamenta accidentis computatur. In Deo autem non potest esse aliquid per modum accidentis. In Deo igitur sua actio non est aliud a sua substantia et a sua potentia.
Caput 10
[lib.2.cap.10.n.1] CHAPTER X—In what manner Power is said to be in God
SINCE the divine action is nothing else than the divine power, it is manifest that power is not said to be in God as a principle of His action (for nothing is the principle of itself), but as a principle of the thing made or done: also that when power is said to be in God in respect of the things made or done by Him, this is a predication of objective fact: but when it is said to be in Him in respect of His own action, such predication regards only our way of viewing things, inasmuch as our understanding views under two different concepts God’s power and God’s action. Hence if there be any actions proper to God, that do not pass into anything made or done, but are immanent in the agent, in respect of these actions there is not said to be power in God except in our way of viewing things, not in objective fact. There are such actions, namely, understanding and willing. Properly speaking, the power of God does not regard these actions, but only effects produced in the world external to Him. Intellect and will, then, are in God, not as ‘faculties,’ or ‘powers,’ but only as actions. It is also clear from the aforesaid that the multitude of actions which are attributed to God, as understanding,
willing, producing creatures, and the like, are not different things, since each one of these actions in God is His own being, which is one and the same.
[lib.2.cap.10.n.1] Qualiter potentia in Deo dicatur. Quia vero nihil est suiipsius principium, quum divina actio non sit aliud quam ejus potentia, manifestum est ex prædictis quod potentia non dicitur in Deo sicut principium actionis, sed sicut principium facti. Et quia potentia respectum ad alterum importat in ratione principii, est enim potentia activa principium agendi in aliud, ut per Philosophum, Metaphys. V, c. xii, patet, manifestum est quod potentia dicitur de Deo « Cum potentia activa sequatur actum, quantitas potentiae sequitur quantitatem actus; unum quodque enim tantum abundat in virtute agendi quantum est in actu. Deus autem est actus infinitus, quia actus finitur aut ex parte agentis aut ex parte recipientis. Sic autem divinus actus non finitur, quia non est ab alio, sed a seipso; nihil etiam potentiae passivæ ei admiscretur, sed est actus purus non receptus in aliquo, et sic non limitatur ad aliquem modum perfectionis essendi; ex quo patet quod virtus ejus et potentia activa est infinita. Quamvis autem potentia infinitatem habeat ex essentia, ex hoc ipso etiam quod comparatur ad ea quorum est principium, recipit quemdam modum infinitatis quem essentia non habet. Potentiæ enim activæ potest attribui quædam infinitas secundum conformitatem ad infinitatem quantitatis contentæ et discretæ; discretæ quidem secundum quod quantitas potentiae attenditur in multa vel pauca objecta, et hæc vocatur quantitas extensiva; contentæ, secundum quod quantitas potentiae attenditur ex hoc quod remisse vel intense agit, et hæc vocatur intensiva. Prima autem qualitas convenit potentiae respectu objectorum, secunda respectu actionis; istorum enim duorum activa potentia est principium et utroque modo divina potentia infinita, nam numquam tot effectus facit quin plures facere possit; nec umquam tam intense operatur quin possit intensius operari. Sed intensio in operatione divina non est attendenda secundum quod operatio est in operante, quia sic semper est infinita, cum operatio sit divina essentia, sed attendenda est secundum quod attinper respectum ad facta, secundum rei veritatem, non per respectum ad actionem, nisi secundum modum intelligendi, prout intellectus noster diversis conceptionibus utrumque considerat, scilicet divinam potentiam et ejus actionem. Unde, si aliquæ actiones Deo conveniant, quæ non in aliquod factum transeant, sed maneant in agente, respectu harum non dicetur in Deo potentia, nisi secundum modum intelligendi, non secundum rei veritatem. Hujusmodi autem actiones sunt intelligere et velle. Potentia igitur Dei, proprie loquendo, non respicit huusmodi actiones, sed solos effectus. Intellectus igitur et voluntas in Deo non sunt ut potentiæ, sed solum ut actiones. Patet etiam, ex prædictis, quod multitudo actionum quæ Deo attribuuntur ut intelligere, velle, producere res, et similia, non sunt diversæ res, quum quælibet harum actionum in Deo sit ipsum ejus esse, quod est unum et idem. Quomodo autem multiplicitas significationis unius rei, unitati non præjudicet, ex his quæ ostensa sunt (l. I, c. xxxi) manifestum esse potest.
Caput 11
[lib.2.cap.11.n.1] CHAPTER XI—That something is predicated of God in relation to Creatures
SINCE power is proper to God in respect of the effects of His production, and power ranks as a principle, and a principle is so called in relation to its derivative; it is clear that something may be predicated of God in relation to the effects of His production.
2. It is unintelligible how one thing can be made a subject of predication in relation to another thing, unless contrariwise the other thing be made a subject of predication in relation to it. But other beings are made subjects of predication in relation to God, as when it is said that they have their being from God and depend on Him. God therefore must be made a subject of predication in relation to creatures.
3. Likeness is a relation. But God, as other agents, acts to the production of His own likeness.
4. Knowledge is predicated in relation to the thing known. But God has knowledge of other beings.
5. Whatever is first and sovereign, is so in relation to others, But God is the first being and the sovereign good.
[lib.2.cap.11.n.1] Quod de Deo aliquid dicatur relative ad creaturas. (I, q. xiii, a. vii, de pot. q. vii, a. viii.) 1. Si autem potentia Deo conveniat respectu suorum effectuum, potentia autem rationem principium habeat, ut (c. x) dictum est, principium autem relative ad principiatum dicatur, manifestum est quod aliquid relative potest dici de Deo respectu suorum effectuum. 2. Item, Non potest intelligigi aliquid relative dici ad alterum, nisi e converso illud relative diceretur ad ipsum. Sed res aliæ relative dicuntur ad Deum, utpote, secundum suum esse quod a Deo habent, ut ostensum est (l. I, c. xiii), ab ipso dein rebus facit non est contra naturam, sed est eis natura, eo quod ipse est conditor et ordinator naturæ; sicut etiam in rebus naturalibus videtur quod quando aliquod corpus iuferius a superiori movetur, est ei ille motus naturalis, quamvis non videatur conveniens motui quem naturaliter habet ex se ipso, sicut patet de fluxu et refluxu maris. In Creaturis enim distingnitur duplex potentia, una naturalis ad proprias operationes vel motus; alia, quæ obedientiæ dicitur, ad ea quæ a Deo recipiunt. Effectus qui a solo Deo fieri possunt non dicuntur possibiles vel impospendentes. Deus igitur e converso relative ad creaturas dicetur. 3. Adhuc, Similitudo est relatio quædam. Deus autem, sicut et cætera agentia, sibi simile agit. Dicitur igitur aliquid relative de Ipso. 4. Amplius, Scientia ad scitum relative dicitur. Deus autem non solum suiipsius, sed etiam aliorum scientiam habet. Igitur aliquid relative dicitur de eo ad alia. 5. Adhuc, movens dicitur relative ad motum, et agens ad factum. Deus autem est agens et movens non motum, ut ostensum est (l. I, c. xiii et xiv). Dicuntur igitur de Ipso relationes. 6. Item, Primum relationem quamdam importat, similiter et summum. Ostensum est autem (l. I, c. xiii et xlii) Ipsum esse primum ens et summum bonum. Patet igitur quod multa de Deo relative dicuntur.
Caput 12
[lib.2.cap.12.n.1] CHAPTER XII—That the Relations, predicated of God in regard to Creatures, are not really in God
THESE relations cannot be in God as accidents in a subject, seeing that in God there is no accident (B. I, Chap ). Nor again can they be in the very substance of God: for then the substance of God in its very essence would be referred to another; but what is referred to another for its very essence, in a manner depends on that other, as it can neither be nor be understood without it; but this would make the substance of God dependent on another being, foreign to itself.
2. God is the first measure of all beings (B. I, Chap. ). He is to them as the object is to our knowledge, that is to say, its measure. But though the object is spoken of in relation to the knowledge of it, nevertheless the relation really is not in the object known, but only in the knowledge of it. The object is said to be in relation, not because it is itself related, but because something else is related to it.
3. The aforesaid relations are predicated of God, not only in respect of things that actually are, but also in respect of things that potentially are, because of them also He has knowledge, and in respect of them He is called both first being and sovereign good. But what actually is bears no real relation to what is not actually but potentially. Now God is not otherwise related to things that actually are than to things that potentially are, because he is not changed by producing anything.
4. To whatsoever is added anything fresh, the thing receiving that addition must be changed, either essentially or accidentally. Now sundry fresh relations are predicated of God, as that He is lord or ruler of this thing newly come into being. If then any relation were predicated as really existing in God, it would follow that something fresh was added to God, and therefore that He had suffered some change, either essential or accidental, contrary to what was shown above (B. I, Chapp. , )
[lib.2.cap.12.n.1] Quod relationes Dei ad creaturas non sunt realiter in Deo. (I, D. xxx, q. 1, De pot., q. vii, a. x.) Hujusmodi autem rationes, quæ sunt ad suos effectus, realiter in Deo esse non possunt. 1. Non enim in eo esse possunt sicut accidentia in subjecto, quum in Ipso nullum sit accidens, ut ostensum est (l. I, c. xxiii). Nec etiam possunt esse ipsa Dei substantia; quum enim relativa sint quæ secundum esse ad aliud quodammodo se habent, ut Philosophus dicit in Prædicamentis (cap. Ad Aliquid), oporteret quod Dei substantia hoc ipsum quod est ad aliud diceretur. Quod autem hoc ipsum quod est ad aliud dicitur, quodammodo ab ipso dependet, quum nec esse nec intelligi sine eo possit. Oporteret igitur quod Dei substantia ab alio extrinseco esset dependens et sic non esset per seipsum necesse, ut in primo libro ostensum est, (c. xv). Non sunt igitur hujus-modi relationes secundum rem in Deo. 2. Item, Ostensum est in primo libro (c. xxviii) quod Deus omnium entium est mensura. Comparatur igitur Deus ad alia entia, sicut scibile ad scientiam nostram, quod ejus mensura est; nam ex eo quod res est vel non est, opinio vel oratio vera vel falsa est, secundum Philosophum in Prædicamentis, (cap. De substantia). Scibile autem licet ad scientiam relative dicatur, tamen relatio secundum rem in scibili non est, sed in scientia tantum; unde, secundum Philosophum, Metaphys. V, c. xv, scibile dicitur relative, non quia ipsum refertur, sed quia aliquid aliud ad ipsum refertur. Dictæ igitur relationes in Deo non sunt realiter. 3. Adhuc, Relationes prædicatæ dicuntur de Deo, non solum respectu eorum quæ sunt in actu, sed etiam respectu eorum quæ sunt in potentia; quia et eorum scientiam habet, et respectu eorum dicitur et primum ens et summum bonum. Sed ejus quod est actu, ad id quod non est actu sed potentia, non sunt relationes reales; alias sequeretur quod essent infinitæ relationes actu in eodem, quum numeri infiniti in potentia sint, majores binario, quibus omnibus ipse est prior. Deus autem non aliter refertur ad ea quæ sunt actu quam ad ea quæ sunt potentia, quia non mutatur ex hoc quod aliqua producit. Non igitur refertur ad alia per relationem realiter in Ipso existentem. 4. Amplius, Cuicumque aliquid de novo advenit, necesse est illud mutari vel per se vel per accidens. Relationes autem quædam de novo dicuntur de Deo, sicut quod Deus est dominus vel gubernator hujus rei quæ de novo incipit esse. Si igitur prædicaretur aliqua relatio realiter in Deo existens, sequeretur quod aliquid Deo de novo adveniret, et sic quod mutaretur vel per se vel per accidens; cujus contrarium in primo libro ostensum est (l. I, c. xiii).
Caput 13
[lib.2.cap.13.n.1] CHAPTER XIII—How the aforesaid Relations are predicated of God
IT cannot be said that the aforesaid relations are things existing outside of God. For since God is first of beings and highest of excellencies, we should have to consider other relations of God to those relations, supposing them to be things; and if the second relations again were things, we should have to invent again a third set of relations, and so on to infinity. Again, there are two ways in which a denomination may be predicated. A thing is denominated from what is outside it, as from place a man is said to be ‘somewhere,’ and from time ‘once’; and again a thing is denominated from what is within it, as ‘white’ from whiteness. But from relation nothing is found to bear a denomination as from something outside itself, but only as from something within itself: thus a man is not called ‘father’ except from the paternity that is in him. It is impossible therefore for the relations, whereby God has relation to the creature, to be anything outside God. Since then it has been shown that they are not in Him really and yet are predicated of Him, the only possible conclusion is that they are attributed to Him merely by our mode of thought, inasmuch as other beings are in relation to Him: for when our understanding conceives that A is related to B, it further conceives that B is related to A, even though sometimes B is not really so related.
Hence it is also clear that the aforesaid relations are not predicated of God in the same way that other things are predicated of God: for all other things, as wisdom or will, are predicated of His essence, while the aforesaid relations are by no means so predicated, but only according to our mode of thought. And yet our thought is not at fault: for, by the very fact of our mind knowing that the relations of effects of divine power have God himself for their term it predicates some things of Him relatively.
[lib.2.cap.13.n.1] Quod relationes, quibus Deus ad res alias refertur, non sunt res extra Deum existentes. (De pot. q. VII, a. XI.) Non autem potest dici quod relationes, J, K, L, M, N, et cod. Bergom. — Edit.: « Dei relationes prædictæ sint exsistentes exterius, quasi res aliquæ extra Deum. 1. Quum enim Deus est primum entium et summum bonorum, oporteret ad alias etiam relationes, quæ sunt aliquæ res, Dei relationes alias considerare; et si illæ sint iterum res aliquæ, oportebit iterum tertias relationes advenire; et sic in infinitum. Non igitur relationes, quibus Deus ad res alias refertur, sunt res aliquæ extra Deum existentes. 2. Item, Duplex est modus quo aliquid denominative prædicatur: denominatur enim aliquid ab eo quod extra ipsum est, sicut a loco dicitur aliquid esse alicubi, et a tempore aliquando; aliquid vero denominatur ab eo quod inest, sicut ab albedine albus. A relatione vero non inventur aliquid denominari quasi exterius existente, sed inhærente; non enim denominatur aliquis pater, nisi a paternitate quae ei inest. Non igitur potest esse quod relationes, quibus Deus ad creaturas refertur, sint res aliquæ extra ipsum. Quum igitur ostensum sit (c. XII) quod non sint in Ipso realiter, et tamen dicantur de Deo, relinquitur quod ei attribuan-tur secundum solum intelligentiæ modum, ex eo quod alia referuntur ad Ipsum. Intellectus enim noster, intelligendo aliquid referri ad alterum, eo intelligit relationem illius ad ipsum, quamvis secundum rem quandoque non referatur. Et sic etiam patet quod alio modo dicuntur de Deo prædicatæ relationes et alia quæ de Deo prædicantur; nam omnia alia, ut sapientia, voluntas, ejus essentiam prædicant; relationes vero prædictæ minime, sed secundum modum intelligendiantum. Nec tamen intellectus est falsus; ex hoc enim ipso quod intellectus noster intelligit relationes divinorum effectuum terminari in ipsum Deum, aliqua prædicat relative de Ipso; sicut et scibile relative intelligimus et significamus ex hoc quod scientia refertur ad ipsum.
Caput 15
[lib.2.cap.15.n.1] CHAPTER XV—That God is to all things the Cause of their being
HAVING shown (Chap ) that God is to some things the cause of their being, we must further show that nothing out of God has being except of Him. Every attribute that attaches to anything otherwise than as constituting its essence, attaches to it through some cause, as whiteness to man. To be in a thing independently of causation is to be there primarily and immediately, as something ordinary (per se) and essential. It is impossible for any one attribute, attaching to two things, to attach to each as constituting its essence. What is predicated as constituent of a thing’s essence, has no extension beyond that thing: as the having three angles together equal to two right angles has no extension beyond ‘triangle,’ of which it is predicated, but is convertible with ‘triangle.’ Whatever then attaches to two things, cannot attach to them both as constituting the essence of each. It is impossible therefore for any one attribute to be predicated of two subjects without its being predicated of one or the other as something come there by the operation of some cause: either one must be the cause of the other, or some third thing must be cause of both. Now ‘being’ is predicated of everything that is. It is impossible therefore for there to be two things, each having being independently of any cause; but either these things must both of them have being by the operation of a cause, or one must be to the other the cause of its being. Therefore everything which in any way is, must have being from that which is uncaused; that is, from God (B. I, Chap. ).
2. What belongs to a thing by its nature, and is not dependent on any causation from without, cannot suffer diminution or defect. For if anything essential is withdrawn from or added to nature, that nature, so increased or diminished, will give place to another. If on the other hand the nature is left entire, and something else is found to have suffered diminution, it is clear that what has been so diminished does not absolutely depend on that nature, but on some other cause, by removal of which it is diminished. Whatever property therefore attaches to a thing less in one instance than in others, does not attach to that thing in mere virtue of its nature, but from the concurrence of some other cause. The cause of all effects in a particular kind will be that whereof the kind is predicated to the utmost. Thus we see that the hottest body is the cause of heat in all hot bodies, and the brightest body the cause of brightness in all bright bodies. But God is in the highest degree ‘being’ (B. I, Chap. ). He then is the cause of all things whereof ‘being’ is predicated.
3. The order of causes must answer to the order of effects, since effects are proportionate to their causes. Hence, as special effects are traced to special causes, so any common feature of those special effects must be traced to some common cause. Thus, over and above the particular causes of this or that generation, the sun is the universal cause of all generation; and the king is the universal cause of government in his kingdom, over the officials of the kingdom, and also over the officials of individual cities. But being is common to all things. There must then be over all causes some Cause to whom it belongs to give being.
4. What is by essence, is the cause of all that is by participation, as fire is the cause of all things fiery, as such. But God is being by His essence because He is pure being; while every other being is being by participation, because there can only be one being that is its own existence (B. I, Chapp. , ). God therefore is cause of being to all other beings.
5. Everything that is possible to be and not to be, has some cause: because, looked at by itself, it is indifferent either way; and thus there must be something else that determines it one way. Hence, as a process to infinity is impossible, there must be some necessary being that is cause of all things which are possible to be and not to be.
6. God in His actuality and perfection includes the perfections of all things (B. I, Chap. ); and thus He is virtually all. He is therefore the apt producing cause of all.
This conclusion is confirmed by divine authority: for it is said: Who made heaven and earth, the sea, and all things that are therein (Ps. cxlv, 6). And, All things were made by him, and without him was made nothing (John i, 3). And From whom are all things, by whom are all things, in (unto) whom are all things (Rom. xi, 16).
[lib.2.cap.15.n.1] Quod omnia quæ sunt, a Deo sunt. (I, q. xliv, a. i, De pot. q. iii, a. v.) Quia vero ostensum est, (c. vi) quod Deus est aliquibus essendi principium oportet ulterius ostendere quod nihil præter ipsum est nisi ab ipso. 1. Omne enim quod alicui convenit non secundum quod ipsum est, per aliquam causam convenit ei, sicut album homini; nam quod causam non habet, primum et immediatum est; unde necesse est quod sit per se et secundum quod ipsum. Impossibile est autem aliquod unum duobus convenire, et utrique secundum quod ipsum; quod enim de aliquo secundum quod ipsum dicitur, ipsum non excedit; sicut habere tres angulos duobus rectis aequales non excedit triangulum de quo prædicatur, sed est eidem convertibile. Si igitur aliquid duobus conveniat, non convenit utrique secundum quod ipsum est. Impossibile est igitur aliquod unum de duobus prædicari, ita quod de neutro per causam dicatur; sed oportet vel unum esse alterius causam, sicut ignis est causa caloris corpori mixto, quum tamen utrumque calidum dicatur; vel oportet quod aliquod tertium sit causa utrique, sicut duabus candelis ignis est causa lucendi. — « Esse » autem dicitur de omni eo quod est. Impossibile est igitur esse aliqua duo, quorum neutrum habeat causam essendi; sed oportet utrumque acceptorum esse per causam, vel alterum alteri esse cau-sam essendi. Oportet igitur quod ab illo cui nihil est causa essendi sit omne illud quod quocumque modo est. Deum autem supra (l. I, c. xiii) ostendimus hujusmodi ens esse cui nihil sit causa essendi. Ab eo igitur est omne quod quocumque modo est. Si autem dicatur quod ens non est prædicatum univocum, nihilominus prædicta conclusio sequitur; non enim de multis aequivoce dicitur, sed per analogiam; et sic oportet fieri reductionem in unum. 2. Amplius, Quod alicui convenit ex sua natura et non ex aliqua causa, minoratum in eo et deficiens esse non potest. Si enim naturæ aliquid essentiale subtrahitur vel additur, jam altera natura erit; sicut et in numeris accidit, in quibus unitas addita vel subtracta speciem variat. Si autem, natura vel quidditate rei integra manente, aliquid minoratum inveniatur, jam patet quod illud non simpliciter dependet ex illa natura, sed ex aliqua alia causa, per cujus remotionem minoratur. Quod igitur alicui minus convenit quam aliis, non convenit ei ex sua natura tantum, sed ex alia causa. Illud igitur erit causa omnium in aliquo genere, cui maxime convenit illius generis prædicatio; unde etiam quod maxime calidum est videmus esse causam caloris in omnibus calidis, et quod maxime lucidum est, causam omnium lucidorum. Deus autem est maxime ens ut ostensum est (l. I, c. xiii). Ipse igitur est causa omnium de quibus ens prædicatur. 3. Adhuc, Secundum ordinem effectuum oportet esse ordinem causarum, eo quod effectus causis suis proportionati sunt; unde oportet quod, sicut effectus proprii reducuntur in causas proprias, ita id quod commune est in effectibus propriis reducatur in aliquam causam communem; sicut, supra particulares causas generationis hujus vel illius, est sol universalis causa generationis; et rex est universalis causa regiminis in regno, supra præpositos regni et etiam urbium singularum. Omnibus autem commune est esse. Oportet igitur quod supra omnes causas sit aliqua causa, cujus sit dare esse. Prima autem causa Deus est, ut supra (l. I, c. xiii) Deo dictæ non divinæ simplicitati. » 1 Cod. Bergom.: « Quod Deus sit omnibus causa essendi. » 2 A, B, C, D, E. F etc.; « Esse enim » omisso: « Omne. » 3 — B, C, D, E, ostensum est. Oportet igitur omnia quæ sunt, a Deo esse. 4. Item, Quod per essentiam dicitur est causa omnium quæ per participationem dicuntur, sicut ignis est causa omnium ignitorum in quantum hujusmodi. Deus autem est ens per essentiam suam, quia est ipsum esse; omne autem aliud ens est ens per participationem, quia ens quod sit suum esse non potest esse nisi unum, ut in primo libro ostensum est (l. I, c. xiii et xiv). Deus igitur est causa essendi omnibus aliis. 5. Præterea, Omne quod est possibile esse et non esse habet aliquam causam, quia, in se consideratum, ad utrumlibet se habet; et sic oportet esse aliquid aliud, quod ipsum ad unum determinet; unde, quum in infinitum procedi non possit, oportet quod sit aliquod necessarium quod sit causa omnium possibilium esse et non esse. Necessarium autem quoddam est habens causam suæ necessitatis, in quo etiam in infinitum procedi non potest; et sic est devenire ad aliquid quod est per se necesse esse; hoc autem esse non potest nisi unum, ut in primo libro ostensum est (l. I, c. xiii et xlii); et hoc est Deus. Oportet igitur omne aliud ab Ipso, reduci in ipsum sicut in causam essendi. 6. Amplius, Deus secundum hoc factivus est rerum quod actu est, ut supra (c. vii) ostensum est. Ipse autem sua actualitate et perfectione omnes rerum perfectiones comprehendit, ut in primo libro probatum est (c. xxviii) et sic est virtualiter omnia. Est igitur Ipse omnium factivus. Hoc autem non esset, si aliquid aliud esset natum esse nisi ab Ipso; nihil enim natum est esse ab alio et non ab alio, quia si natum est non ab alio esse, est per seipsum necesse esse; quod non potest ab alio esse. Nihil igitur potest esse nisi a Deo. 7. Item, Imperfecta a perfectis sumunt originem, ut semen ab animali. Deus autem est perfectissimum et summum ens et summum bonum, ut in primo libro ostensum est (c. xxviii, xiii et xlii). Ipse igitur est omnibus causa essendi, præcipue quum ostensum sit (l. I, c. xlii) quod tale non possit esse nisi unum. Hoc autem divina confirmat auctoritas. Dicitur enim: Qui fecit cælum et terram, mare et omnia quæ in eis sunt, Psalm. 6. Et: Omnia per Ipsum facta sunt, et sine Ipso factum est nihil, Joann. I, 3. Et: Ex quo omnia, per quem omnia, et in quo omnia, Ipsi gloria in secula, Rom. xi, 36. Per hoc autem excluditur antiquorum naturalium error, qui ponebant corpora quædam non habere causam essendi; et etiam quorumdam, qui dicunt Deum non esse causam substantiæ cæli, sed solum motus.
Caput 16
[lib.2.cap.16.n.1] CHAPTER XVI—That God has brought things into being out of nothing
TO every effect produced by God there is either something pre-existent or not. If not, the thesis stands, that God produces some effect out of nothing pre-existent. If anything pre-exists, we either have a process to infinity, which is impossible, or we must come to something primitive, which does not presuppose anything else previous to it. Now this primitive something cannot be God Himself, for God is not the material out of which anything is made (B. I, Chap. ): nor can it be any other being, distinct from God and uncaused by God (Chap. ).
3. The more universal the effect, the higher the cause: for the higher the cause, the wider its range of efficiency. Now being is more universal than motion. Therefore above any cause that acts only by moving and transmitting must be that cause which is the first principle of being; and that we have shown to be God (B. I, Chap. ). God therefore does not act merely by moving and transmuting: whereas every cause that can only bring things into
being out of pre-existing material acts merely in that way, for a thing is made out of material by movement or some change.
4. It is not proper to the universal cause of being, as such, to act only by movement and change: for not by movement and change is being, as such, made out of not-being, as such, but ‘being this’ is made out of ‘not being this.’ But God is the universal principle of being (Chap. ). Therefore it is not proper to Him to act only by movement or change, or to need pre-existent material to make anything.
5. Every agent has a term of action like itself, for its acts inasmuch as it is in actuality. Given then an agent in actuality by some form inherent in it, and not to the whole extent of its substance, it will be proper to such an agent to produce its effect by causing a form in some way inherent in matter. But God is in actuality, not by anything inhering in Him, but to the whole extent of His substance (B. I, Chap. ). Therefore the proper mode of divine action is to produce the whole subsistent thing, and not a mere inherent thing, as is form in matter.
10. Between actuality and potentiality such an order obtains, that, though in one and the same being, which is sometimes in potentiality sometimes in actuality, potentiality is prior in time to actuality (although actuality is prior in nature), yet, absolutely speaking, actuality must be prior to potentiality, as is clear from this, that potentiality is not reduced to actuality except by some actual being. But matter is being in potentiality. Therefore God, first and pure actuality, must be absolutely prior to matter, and consequently cause thereof.
This truth divine Scripture confirms, saying: In the beginning God created heaven and earth (Gen. i, 1). For to create is nothing else than to bring a thing into being without any pre-existent material.
Hereby is confuted the error of the ancient philosophers, who supposed no cause at all for matter, since in the actions of particular agents they always saw some matter pre-existent to every action. Hence they took up the common opinion, that nothing is made out of nothing, which indeed is true of the actions of particular agents. But they had not yet arrived at a knowledge of the universal agent, the active cause of all being, whose causative action does not necessarily suppose any pre-existent material.
[lib.2.cap.16.n.1] Quod Deus ex nihilo produxit res in esse. (I, q. xliv, a. 1; De pot. q. iii, a. 1.) Ex hoc autem apparet quod Deus in esse res produxit ex nullo præxexistente sicut ex materia. 1. Si enim est aliquid effectus Dei, aut præxexistit aliquid illi, aut non. Si non, habetur propositum, scilicet quod Deus aliquem effectum producat ex nullo præxexistente. Si autem aliquid illi præxexistit, aut est procedere in infinitum, quod non est possibile in causis materialibus, ut Philosophus probat, Metaphs. II, c. ii; aut erit devenire ad aliquod primum quod aliud non præsupponit; quod qui dem non potest esse ipse Deus (ostensum est enim in primo libro, c. xvii, quod ipse non est materia alicujus rei), nec potest esse aliud a Deo, cui Deus non sit causa essendi, ut ostensum est (c. xv). Relinquitur igitur quod Deus, in producione sui effectus, non requirit materiam præjacentem ex qua operetur. 2. Adhuc, Unaquæque materia per formam superinductam contrahitur ad aliquam speciem. Operari ergo ex materia præjacente, superinducendo formam quocumque modo, est agentis ad aliquam determinatam speciem. Tale autem agens est agens particulare; causæ enim causatis proportionales sunt. Agens igitur quod requirit ex necessitate materiam præjacentem ex qua operatur, est agens particulare. Deus autem est agens sicut causa universalis essendi, ut supra (c. xv) ostensum est. Igitur Ipse, in sua actione, materiam præjacentem non requirit. 3. Item, Quanto aliquis effectus est universalior, tanto habet propriam causam altiorem; quia quanto causa est altior, tanto ad plura virtus ejus extenditur. Esse autem est universalius quam moveri; sunt enim quædam entium immobilia, ut etiam philosophi tradunt, ut lapides et hujusmodi. Oportet ergo quod, supra causam quæ non agit nisi movendo et transmutando, sit illa causa quæ est primum essendi principium. Hoc autem ostendimus, (l. I, c. xiii,) esse Deum. Deus igitur non agit tantummodo movendo et transmutando. Omne autem quod non potest producere res in esse nisi ex materia præjacente, agit solum movendo et transmutando; facere enim aliquid ex materia, est per motum vel mutationem quamdam. Non ergo impossibile est producere res in esse sine materia præjacente. Producit igitur Deus res in esse sine materia præjacente. 4. Præterea, Quod agit tantum per motum et mutationem, non competit universali causæ ejus quod est esse; non enim per motum et mutationem fit ens ex non-ente simpliciter, sed ens hoc ex non-ente hoc. Deus autem est universale essendi principium, ut ostensum est (c. xv). Non igitur sibi competit agere tantum per motum aut per mutationem; neque igitur sibi competit indigere præjacente materia ad aliquid facientum. 5. Amplius, Unumquodque agens sibi simile agit; agit enim secundum quod actu est. Illius igitur agentis erit producere effectum, causando aliquo modo formam materiæ inhærentem, quod est actu per formam sibi inhærentem et non per totam substantiam suam; unde Philosophus, Metaphys. VII, c. vii et viii, probat quod res materiales, habentes formas in materiis, generantur a materialibus agentibus, habentibus formas in materia, non a formis per se exsistentibus. Deus autem non est ens actu per aliquid sibi inhærens, sed per totam suam substantiam, ut supra (l. I, c. xviii) probatum est. Igitur proprius modus suæ actionis est ut producat rem subsistentem totam, non solum rem inhærentem, scilicet formam in materia. Per hunc autem modum agit omne agens quod materiam in agendo non requirit. Deus igitur materiam præjacentem non requirit in sua actione. 6. Item, Materia comparatur ad agens, sicut recipiens actionem quæ ab ipso est; actus enim, qui est agentis ut a quo, est patientis ut in quo. Igitur requiritur ma-teria ab aliquo agente, ut recipiat actionem ipsius; ipsa enim actio agentis, in patiente recepta, est actus agentis et formæ, aut aliqua inchoatio formæ in ipso. Deus autem non agit actione aliqua, quam necesse sit in aliquo patiente recipi; quia sua actio est sua substantia, ut supra (c. vii) probatum est. Non igitur ad producendum effectum requirit materiam præjacentem. 7. Præterea, Omne agens quod in agendo requirit materiam præjacentem, habet materiam proportionatam suæ actioni, ut quidquid est in virtute agentis totum sit in potentia materiæ; alias non posset in actum producere quidquid est in sua virtute activa, et sic frustra haberet virtutem ad illa. Materia autem non habet talem proportionem ad Deum; non enim in materia est potentia ad quantitatem quamcunque, ut patet per Philosophum, Physic. III, c. v. Quum ergo divina potentia sit simplex et infinita, ut in primo libro ostensum est (c. xviii et xliii), Deus igitur non requirit materiam præjacentem ex qua de necessitate agat. 8. Adhuc, Diversarum rerum diversæ sunt materiæ; non enim est eadem materia spiritualium et corporalium, nec corporum cælestium et corruptibilium; quod quidem ex hoc patet quod recipere, quod est proprietas materiæ, non ejusdem rationis est in prædictis; nam receptio quæ est in spiritualibus est intelligibilis, sicut intellectus recipit species intelligibilium non secundum esse materiæ; corpora vero supercælestia recipiunt innovationem situs, non autem innovationem essendi, sicut corpora inferiora. Non est igitur una materia quæ sit in potentia ad esse universale. Ipse autem Deus est totius esse causa universaliiter. Ipsi igitur nulla materia proportionaliter respondet; non igitur materiam ex necessitate requirit. 9. Amplius, Quorumcumque in rerum natura est aliqua proportion et aliquis ordo, oportet unum eorum esse ab alio, vel ambo ab aliquo tertio; oportet enim ordinem in uno constitui, respondendo ad aliud; alias ordo vel proportio esset a casu, quem in primis rerum principiis ponere est impossibile, quia sequeretur magis omnia alia esse a casu. Si igitur sit aliqua materia divinæ actioni proportionata, oportet vel quod alterum sit ab altero vel utrumque a tertio. Sed quum Deus sit primum ens et prima causa, non potest esse effectus materiæ, nec potest esse ab aliqua tertia causa. Relinquitur igitur, si invenitur aliqua materia proportionata divinæ actioni, quod illius Ipse sit causa. 10. Adhuc, Quod est in entibus primum, oportet esse causam eorum quae sunt; si enim non essent causata, non essent ab ipso ordinata, ut jam ostensum est (l. I, c. xiii). Inter actum autem et potentiam talis est ordo quod, licet in uno et eodem quod quando est potentia quandoque actu, potentia sit prior tempore quam actus, licet actus sit prior natura, tamen, simpliciter loquendo, oportet actum potentia priorem esse; quod patet ex hoc quod potentia non reducitur in actum nisi per ens actu. Sed materia est ens in potentia. Ergo oportet quod Deus, qui est actus primus et purus, sit simpliciter ea prior, et per consequens causa ipsius. Non ergo suæ actioni præsupponitur materia ex necessitate. 14. Item, Materia prima aliquo modo est, quia est ens in potentia. Deus autem est causa omnium quæ sunt, ut supra (c. xv) ostensum est. Deus igitur est causa materiæ primæ, cui nulla præexsistit; divina igitur actio materiam præexsisten tem non requirit. Hanc autem veritatem divina Scriptura confirmat, dicens: In principio creavit Deus cælum et terram, Gen. 1, 4. Nihil enim est aliud creare quam absque materia præjacente aliquid in esse producere. Ex hoc autem confutatur error antiquorum philosophorum, qui ponebant materia omnino nullam causam esse, eo quod, in actionibus particularium agentium, semper videbant aliquid actioni præjacere, ex quo opinionem sumpserunt omnibus communem, quod ex nihilo nihil fit; quod quidem in particularibus agentibus verum est. Ad universalis autem agentis, quod est totius esse activum, cognitionem nondum pervenerant, quem nihil in sua actione præsupponere necesse est.
Caput 17
[lib.2.cap.17.n.1] CHAPTER XVII—That Creation is not a Movement nor a Change
EVERY movement or change is the actualisation of something that was in potentiality, as such: but in this action of creation there is nothing pre-existent in potentiality to become the object of the action.
2. The extremes of movement or change fall under the same order, being either of the same kind, as contraries are, or sharing one common potentiality of matter. But nothing of this can be in creation, to which no previous condition of things is supposed.
3. In every change or movement there must be something coming to be otherwise than as it was before. But where the whole substance of a thing is brought into being, there cannot be any permanent residuum, now in this condition, now in that: because such a residuum would not be produced, but presupposed to production.
[lib.2.cap.17.n.1] Quod est creatio non motus neque mutatio. (I, q. xlv, a. ii, ad ii et Ⅲ; II, D. I, q. Ⅰ, a. Ⅱ; De pot. q. Ⅲ, a. Ⅱ.) Hoc autem ostenso, manifestum est quod Dei actio, quæ est absque materia præjacente et creatio vocatur, non sit motus neque mutatio, proprie loquendo. 1. Motus enim omnis vel mutatio est actus exsistentis in potentia secundum quod hujusmodi. In hac autem actione non præexsistit aliquid in potentia quod suscipiat actionem, ut jam ostensum est. (c. xvi) Igitur non est motus neque mutatio. 2. Item, Extrema motus vel mutationis cadunt in eumdem ordinem: vel quia sunt sub uno genere, sicut contraria, ut patet in motu augmenti et alterationis et secundum locum lationis; vel quia communant in una potentia materiæ, ut privatio et forma in generatione et corruptione. Neutrum autem potest dici in creatione; potentia enim ibi non est nec aliquid ejusdem generis quod præsupponatur creationi, ut probatum est (c. xvi). Igitur non est ibi neque motus neque mutatio. 3. Præterea, In omni mutatione vel motu, oportet esse aliquid aliter se habens nunc quam prius; hoc enim ipsum nomen mutationis ostendit. Ubi autem tota substantia rei in esse producitur, non potest esse aliquid idem aliter et aliter se habens; quia illud non esset productum, sed productioni præsupponitur. Non est ergo creatio mutatio. 4. Adhuc, Oportet quod motus vel mutatio duratione præcedat id quod fit per mutationem vel motum, quia factum esse est principium quietis et terminus motus; unde oportet omnem mutationem esse motum, vel terminum motus qui est succesivus; et propter hoc quod fit non est, quia, quamdiu durat motus, aliquid fit et non est; in ipso autem termino motus, in quo incipit quies, jam non fit aliquid, sed factum est. In creatione autem non potest hoc esse, quia, si ipsa creatio præcederet ut motus vel mutatio, oporteret sibi præstitui aliquid subjectum; quod est contra creationis rationem. Creatio igitur non est motus neque mutatio. 1 A, B, C, D, E, F, I, etc. omittunt: « In. » « Est ergo creatio aliquid realiter in ipsa crea-
Caput 18
[lib.2.cap.18.n.1] CHAPTER XVIII—Solution of Arguments against Creation
HENCE appears the futility of arguments against creation drawn from the nature of movement or change, — as that creation must be in some subject, or that non-being must be transmuted into being: for creation is not a change, but is the mere dependence of created being on the principle by which it is set up, and so comes under the category of relation: hence the subject of creation may very well be said to be the thing created. Nevertheless creation is spoken of as a ‘change’ according to our mode of conceiving it, inasmuch as our understanding takes one and the same thing to be now non-existent and afterwards existing. If Creation (creaturedom) is a relation, it is evidently some sort of reality; and this reality is neither uncreated, nor created by a further act of creation. For since the created effect really depends on the Creator, this relation must be a certain reality. Now every reality is brought into being by God; and therefore also this reality is brought into being by God, and yet was not created by any other creation than that of the first creature, because accidents and forms do not exist by themselves, and therefore neither are they terms of separate creation, since creation is the production of substantial being; but as they are ‘in another,’ so are they created in the creation of other things.
[lib.2.cap.18.n.1] Quod creatio non potest impugnari per rationes sumptas ex natura motus et mutationis. Ex hoc autem apparet vanitas impugnantium creationem per rationes sumptas ex natura motus vel mutationis, utpote quod oportet creationem, ut cæteros motus vel mutationes, esse in aliquo subjecto, et quod oportet non-esse transmutari in esse, sicut ignis transmutatur in aerem. 1. Non enim est creatio mutatio (c. xvii,) sed ipsa dependentia esse creati ad principium a quo instituitur, et sic est de genere relationis; unde nihil prohibet eam in creato esse sicut in subjecto. Dicitur tamen creatio esse mutatio quædam, secundum modum intelligendi tantum, in quantum scilicet intellectus noster accipit unam et eamdem rem ut non existentem prius et postea exsistentem. 2. Apparet etiam, si creatio relatio quædam est, quod res quædam est, et neque increata est neque alia relatione creata; quum enim effectus creatus realiter dependeat a Creatore, oportet hujusmodi relationem esse rem quamdam. Omnis autem res a Deo in esse producitur. Est igitur in esse a Deo producta, non tamen alia creatione creata quam ipsa creatura prima quæ per eam creata dicitur; quia generatum consequitur quædam relatio quæ di-citur filius, ita creationem vel creaturam consequitur relatio, quæ est creatio passibilis vel passiva, quæ scilicet sic ideo dicitur, quia sicut passio est effectus actionis, ita creatio est effectus creationis activæ dictæ. Sed videtur quod creatio prout secundum rationem intelligendi accipitur pro exitu rei in esse, non sit aliqua relatio conseqæens creaturam, licet ipsam rem productam consequatur quædam relatio ex eo quod sic a tali agente producitur, a quo realiter dependet; sicut etiam productio filii non dicit relationem filii producti ad patrem, sed filium productum a tali agente naturali consequitur quædam relatio filiationis: ita quod creatura, ex hoc quod ejus esse est productio a Deo, et dependet ab ipso, refertur ad Deum et dicitur ejus creatura; et hæc relatio semper manet in creatura quamdiu existit, etiam creatione transeunte, sed conservatione in esse producto manente, sicut in filio manet, actu generationis transeunte. Item sicut materia absque accidente quod insit ei habet naturalem ordinem et dependentiam ad formam; ita videtur quod creatura absque aliquo accidente possit habere ordinem ad Creatorem, et ab ipso, sicut a sua causa, dependere; sicut etiam ponitur quod in aliqua creatura sint tres accidentia et formæ, sicut per se non sunt, ita nec per se creantur quum creatio sit productio entis; sed, sicut in alio sunt, ita in aliis creatis creantur. 3. Præterea, Relatio non refertur ad aliam relationem, quia sic esset abire in infinitum; sed per seipsam refertur, quia essentialiter relatio est. Non igitur alia creatione opus est, qua ipsa creatio creetur, et sic in infinitum procedatur.
Caput 19
[lib.2.cap.19.n.1] CHAPTER XIX—That Creation is not Successive
SUCCESSION is proper to movement. But creation is not movement. Therefore there is in it no succession.
2. In every successive movement there is some medium between the extremes. But between being and not-being, which are the extremes in creation, there can be no medium, and therefore no succession.
3. In every making, in which there is succession, the process of being made is before the state of achieved completion. But this cannot happen in creation, because, for the process of being made to precede the achieved completion of the creature, there would be required some subject in which the process might take place. Such a subject cannot be the creature itself, of whose creation we are speaking, because that creature is not till the state of its achieved completion is realised. Nor can it be the Maker, because to be in movement is an actuality, not of mover, but of moved. And as for the process of being made having for its subject any pre-existing material, that
is against the very idea of creation. Thus succession is impossible in the act of creation.
5. Successive stages in the making of things become necessary, owing to defect of the matter, which is not sufficiently disposed from the first for the reception of the form. Hence, when the matter is already perfectly disposed for the form, it receives it in an instant. Thus because a transparent medium is always in final disposition for light, it lights up at once in the presence of any actually shining thing. Now in creation nothing is prerequisite on the part of the matter, nor is anything wanting to the agent for action. It follows that creation takes place in an instant: a thing is at once in the act of being created and is created, as light is at once being shed and is shining.
[lib.2.cap.19.n.1] Quod creatio est absque successione. Apparet autem ex prædictis quod omnis creatio absque successione est. 1. Nam successio propria est motui. Creatio autem neque est motus neque terminus motus sicut generatio. Igitur nulla est in ipsa successio. 2. Item, In omni motu successivo, est aliquod medium inter ejus extrema; quia medium est ad quod continue motum prius venit quam ad ultimum. Inter esse autem et non esse, quæ sunt quasi extrema creationis, non potest esse aliquod medium. Igitur non est in creatione successio. 3. Adhuc, In omni factione in qua est successio, fieri est ante factum esse, ut probatur in sexto Physicorum (c. viii). Hoc autem in creatione non potest accidere, quia fieri, quod præcederet factum esse creaturæ, indigeret aliquo subjecto Cod. Bergom.: «Quomodo solvantur rationes contra creationem ab xterno.» A, B, C, D, E, F, G, etc.: «Apparet etiam vanitas.», etc. et cod. Bergom. A, B, C, D, E, F, G, «Cum dicitur creatio est creatura; ergo est in eo accidens quod creatio dicitur, et erit abire in infinitum. Non oportet; tale enim accidens non consequitur quamlibet creaturam, sed solum subsistentem et perfectam ad quam actio Creatoris principaliter terminatur.» (Ex cod. G. de F.) quod non posset esse ipsa creatura de cujus creatione loquimur, quia illa non est ante factum esse, nec etiam in factore; non enim moveri est actus moventis, sed moti; relinquitur igitur quod fieri haberet pro subjecto aliquam materiam facti præexsistentem; quod est contra rationem creationis. Impossibile est igitur in creatione successionem esse. 4. Amplius, Omnem factionem successivam in tempore oportet esse; prius enim et posterius in motu numerantur tempore. Simul autem dividitur motus, et tempus, et id super quod transit motus; quod quidem in motu locali manifestum est; nam, in medietate temporis, regulariter motum pertransit medium magnitudinis. Divisio autem in formis, respondens divisioni temporis, attenditur secundum instensionem et remissionem; ut si aliquis in tanto tempore tantum calefit, et in minori minus. Secundum hoc igitur potest esse successio in motu vel quacunque factione, quod id secundum quod est motus est divisibile vel secundum quantitatem, sicut in motu locali et in augmento, vel secundum intensionem et remissionem, sicut in alteratione. Hoc autem secundum contingit dupliciter: Uno modo, quia ipsa forma, quæ est terminus motus, est divisibilis secundum intensionem et remissionem, sicut patet quum aliquid movetur ad albedinem; alio modo, quia talis divisio contingit in dispositionibus ad talem formam, sicut fieri ignis successivum est, propter alterationem pracedentem circa dispositiones ad formam. Ipsum autem esse substantiale creaturæ non est divisibile modo prædicto, quia substantia non suscipit magis et minus; nec in creatione pracedunt dispositiones, materia non præexsistente; nam dispositio ex parte materiae est. Relinquitur igitur quod in creatione non potest esse aliqua successio. 5. Præterea, Successio, in rerum factionibus, ex defectu materiae provenit, quæ non convenienter est a principio ad receptionem formæ disposita; unde, quando materia jam perfecte disposita est ad formam, eam recipit in instanti; et inde est quod, quia diaphanum semper est in ultima dispositione ad lucem, statim ad praesentiam lucidi in actu illuminatur, nec aliquis motus pracedit ex parte illuminabilis, sed solum motus localis ex parte illuminantis per quem fit præsens. In creatione autem nihil præexigitur ex parte materiae, nec aliquid deest agenti ad agendum, quod postea per motum ei adveniat, quum sit immobilis, ut in primo hujus operis ostensum est, (c. 11). Relinquitur igitur quod creatio sit in instanti; unde simul aliquid, dum creatur, creatum est, sicut simul illuminatur et illuminatum est., et cod. Bergom., J, K, L, N, M, et cod. Bergom. — Edit.: « Sufficienter. « Si accipiatur mutatio large pro quocumque exitu de non esse ad esse, sic est ibi mutatio, quia est ibi versio secundum Damasc. Sed est ista mutatio secundum modum nostrum intelligendi, sed simpliciter loquendo non est mutatio, sed quædam relatio consequens ipsam mutationem. Nihil enim cujus esse non potest intelligi nisi cum termino mutationis, est proprie mutatio; sed creatio, quæ est accidens, non potest habere esse nisi cum illa versione perfecta, quia si ante esset, esset sine subjecto. » (Ex cod. G. de F.) « In omni vera mutatione et motu invenitur duplex processus, unus ab uno termino in alium terminum, sicut ab albedine in nigredinem; alius ab agente in patiens, sicut a faciente in factum; sed hujusmodi processus non similiter se habent in ipso motu, et etiam in terminum motus. Nam in ipso moveri id quod movetur recedit ab uno terminum et accedit ad alterum, quod non est in terminum motus. Nam tunc non ulterius transmutatur ab agente, sed consequitur factum quadam relatione ad agentem, prout habet esse ab ipso, et prout est ei simile quoquo modo, sicut in terminum generationis consequitur natus filiationem. Creatio autem non potest accipi ut in moveri quod est ante terminum motus, sed accipitur ut in factum esse. Unde in ipsa creatione non importatur aliquis accessus ad esse nec transmutatio a creante, sed solummodo inceptio essendi, et relatio ad creantem a quo esse habet, et sic creatio nihil aliquid est realiter quam relatio quædam ad Deum cum novitate essendi. Creatio autem active accepta signat divinam essentiam cum quadam relatione cointellecta; accepta vero passive, sicut dictum est, realiter est quædam relatio signata per modum mutationis ratione moventis vel inceptionis importata. Hæc autem relatio creatura quædam est, accepto communiter nomine creaturæ, pro omni eo quod est a Deo; sed si accipiatur magis stricte, pro eo tantum quod subsistit, quod proprie fit et creatur, sicut proprie habet esse, sic relatio prædicta non est quoddam creatum sed concreatum, sicut nec est ens proprie loquendo, sed inherens. Aliqui dicunt quod creatio non differt a creatura secundum rem, sed solum secundum rationem, quia Creatura reipsa dependet a creatore et ipsa refertur ad ipsum; unde dicit ipsam Creaturam relatam ad suum principium effectivum. Sed potest dici sic differre a creatura et medium esse inter ipsam et creatore, sicut potentia materiae differt ab essentia materiae, et medium quid est inter materiam et formam. » (Ex cod. G. de F.) Et inde est quod Scriptura divina creationem rerum in indivisibili factam pronuntiat dicens: In principio Deus creavit cælum et terram, Gen. 1, 1; quod quidem principium Basilius principium temporis exponit, quod oportet esse indivisibile, ut in sexto Physicorum probatur, c. viii.
Caput 21
[lib.2.cap.21.n.1] CHAPTER XXI—That it belongs to God alone to create
SINCE the order of actions is according to the order of agents, and the action is nobler of the nobler agent, the first and highest action must be proper to the first and highest agent. But creation is the first and highest action, presupposing no other, and in all others presupposed. Therefore creation is the proper action of God alone, who is the highest agent.
2. Nothing else is the universal cause of being but God (Chap. ).
3. Effects answer proportionally to their causes. Thus actual effects we attribute to actual causes, potential effects to potential causes, particular effects to particular causes, and universal effects to universal causes. Now the first thing caused is ‘being,’ as we see by its presence in all things. Therefore the proper cause of ‘being,’ simply as such, is the first and universal agent, which is God. Other agents are not causes of ‘being,’ simply as such, but causes of ‘being this,’ as ‘man’ or ‘white’: but ‘being,’ simply as such, is caused by creation, which presupposes nothing, because nothing can be outside of the extension of ‘being,’ simply as such. Other productions result in ‘being this,’ or ‘being of this quality’: for out of pre-existent being is made ‘being this,’ or ‘being of this quality.’
6. Every agent that acts as an instrument completes the action of the principal agent by some action proper and connatural to itself, as a saw operates to the making of a stool by cutting. If then there be any nature that operates to creation as an instrument of the prime creator, this being must operate through some action due and proper to its own nature. Now the effect answering to the proper action of an instrument is prior in the way of production to the effect answering to the principal agent; hence it is that the final end answers to the principal agent: for the cutting of the wood is prior
to the form of the stool. There must then be some effect due to the proper operation of the instrument used for creation; and this effect must be prior in the way of production to ‘being’: for ‘being’ is the effect answering to the action of the prime creator. But that is impossible: for the more general is prior in the way of generation to the more particular.
Hereby is destroyed the error of certain philosophers, who said that God created the first spirit, and by it was created the second, and so in order to the last.
[lib.2.cap.21.n.1] Quod solius Dei est creare. (I, q. xiv, a. v; q. lxv. a. iii; I, D. xlvii, q. i, a. i; De pot. q. iii, a. v.) Ex præmissis etiam ulterius ostendi potest quod creatio est propria Dei actio, et quod ejus solius est creare. Homilia I in Hexaemeron, n. 6. — Patrol. græco-lat, tom. xxix, col. 15. 1. Quum enim secundum ordinem agentium sit ordo actionum, eo quod nobilioris agentis nobilior est actio, oportet quod prima actio sit primi agentis propria. Creatio autem est prima actio, eo quod nullam aliam præsupponit et omnes aliæ præsupponunt eam. Est igitur creatio propria Dei solius actio, qui est agens primum. 2. Item, Ex hoc ostensum est (c. xv) quod Deus creat res, quia nihil potest esse, præter ipsum, ab eo non creatum. Hoc autem nulli alii convenire potest, quum nihil alius sit universalis causa essendi nisi Deus. Soli ergo Deo competit creatio, sicut propria ejus actio. 3. Adhuc, Effectus suis causis proportionaliter respondent, ut scilicet effectus in actu causis actualibus attribuamus, et effectus in potentia causis quæ sunt in potentia, et similiter effectus particulares causis particularibus, universalibus vero causis universales effectus, ut docet Philosophus, Phys. II, c. iii. Esse autem est causatum primum, quod ex ratione suæ communitatis apparet. Causa igitur prima propria essendi simpliciter est agens primum et universale, quod Deus est; alia vero agentia non sunt causa essendi simpliciter, sed causa essendi hoc, ut hominem vel album. Esse autem simpliciter per creationem causatur, quæ nihil præsupponit, quia non potest aliquid præxsistere quod sit extra ens simpliciter; per alias autem factiones fit hoc ens vel tale; nam ex ente præxsisente fit hoc ens vel tale. Ergo creatio est propria Dei actio. 4. Amplius, Quidquid est causatum secundum aliquam naturam, non potest esse prima causa illius naturæ, sed secunda et instrumentalis; Socrates enim, quia ha-, etc. et cod. Berg. — In F ly « cum » ad oram codicis inscribitur. « Hæc ratio bene videtur ostendere quod nulla creatura potest communicare sive cooperari Deo in productione ejus quod de nihilo existit, et per se subsistit, in cujus creatione nihil subest quod posset recipere actionem creaturæ quæ accidens est, sed non forte in productione alicujus ex aliquo præx existente, quod tamen non educitur de potentia illius præx existentis, sed virtute agentis supernaturalis quæ potest in aliquod subjectum inducere aliquam perfectionem quæ non posset inducia a virtute naturali, sicut est gratia quæ dicitur fieri in anima per creationem, non per eductionem de potentia subjecti, sicut cetera activa naturalia; de qua quidem gratia non omnino male videtur Magister dicere IV Sententiarum, quod potest creari in anima virtute sacramento agentium, non virtute propria naturali, sed bet suæ humanitatis causam, non potest esse prima humanitatis causa; quia, cum humanitas sua sit ab aliquo causata, sequeretur quod esset sui ipsius causa, quum sit id quod est per humanitatem; et ideo oportet quod generans univocum sit quasi agens instrumentale, respectu ejus quod est causa primaria totius speciei; et inde est quod oportet omnes causas inferiores agentes reduci in causas superiores, sicut instrumentales in primarias. Omnis autem alia substantia, præter Deum, habet esse causatum ab alio, ut supra (c. xv) probatum est. Impossibile est igitur quod sit causa essendi, nisi sicut instrumentalis et agens in virtute alterius. Instrumentum autem nunquam adhibetur ad causandum aliquid nisi per viam motus; est enim ratio instrumenti quod sit movens motum. Creatio autem non est motus, ut ostensum est (c. xvii). Nulla igitur substantia, præter Deum, potest aliquid creare. 5. Item, Instrumentum adhibetur propter convenientiam ejus cum causato, ut sit medium inter causam primam et causatum, et attingat utrumque, et sic influentia primi perveniat ad causatum per instrumentum. Unde oportet quod sit aliquid recipiens primi influentiam, in eo quod per instrumentum causatur; quod est contra rationem creationis: nam nihil præsupponit. Relinquitur igitur quod nihil alius, præter Deum, potest creare, neque sicut principale agens neque sicut instrumentum. 6. Præterea, Omne agens instrumentale exsequitur actionem principalis agentis per aliquam actionem propriam et connaturalem sibi; sicut calor natura-, etc. et cod. Berg. — In F ly « cum » ad oram codicis inscribitur. « Hæc ratio bene videtur ostendere quod nulla creatura potest communicare sive cooperari Deo in productione ejus quod de nihilo existit, et per se subsistit, in cujus creatione nihil subest quod posset recipere actionem creaturæ quæ accidens est, sed non forte in productione alicujus ex aliquo præx existente, quod tamen non educitur de potentia illius præx existentis, sed virtute agentis supernaturalis quæ potest in aliquod subjectum inducere aliquam perfectionem quæ non posset inducia a virtute naturali, sicut est gratia quæ dicitur fieri in anima per creationem, non per eductionem de potentia subjecti, sicut cetera activa naturalia; de qua quidem gratia non omnino male videtur Magister dicere IV Sententiarum, quod potest creari in anima virtute sacramento agentium, non virtute propria naturali, sed lis generat carnem dissolvendo et digerendo, et serra operatur ad perfectionem scamni secando. Si igitur aliqua creatura sit quæ operetur ad creationem sicut instrumentum primi creantis, oportet quod hoc operetur per aliquam actionem debitam et propriam suæ naturæ. Effectus autem respondens actioni propriæ instrumenti, est prior in via generationis quam effectus respondens principali agenti; ex quo provenit quod primo agenti finis ultimus respondet; prius enim est sectio ligni quam forma scamni, et digestio cibi quam generatio carnis. Oportebit igitur aliquid esse effectum per propriam operationem instrumentalis creantis, quod sit prius in via generationis quam esse quod est effectus respondens actioni primi creantis. Hoc autem est impossibile; nam quanto aliquid est communius, tanto est prius in via generationis, sicut prius est animal quam homo in generatione hominis, sicut Philosophus dicit De generatione animalium. Impossibile est ergo quod aliqua creatura creet sicut principale agens, neque 4 instrumentaliter. 7. Item, Quod est secundum aliquam naturam tantum, non potest esse simpliciter illius naturæ causa; esset enim sui ipsius causa; potest autem esse causa illius naturæ in hoc, sicut Plato est causa humanæ naturæ in Socrate, non autem simpliciter, eo quod ipse est creatus in humana natura. Quod autem est causa alicujus in hoc, est attribuens naturam communem alicui, per quod specificatur vel individuatur; quod non potest esse per creationem, quæ nihil præsupponit cui aliquid attribuatur per actionem. Impossibile est igitur aliquod ens creatum esse causam alterius per creationem. 8. Amplius, Quum omne agens agat secundum quod actu est, oportet modum actionis esse secundum modum actus illius rei; unde calidum quod est magis in actu caloris magis calefacit. Cujuscumque igitur actus determinatur ad genus et ad speciem et accidente, ejus virtutem oportet esse determinatam ad effectus similes agenti, in quantum hujusmodi, ex eo quod omne agens agit sibi simile. Nihil autem quod habet esse determinatum potest esse simile effectui generis vel speciei ejusdem, nisi secundum rationem generis vel speciei; nam, secundum quod est hoc aliquid, unum-quodque est ab alio distinctum. Nihil igitur cujus esse finitum est potest per suam actionem esse causa finalis alterius, nisi quantum ad hoc quod habet genus aut speciem, non autem quantum ad hoc quod subsistit ab aliis distinctum. Omne igitur agens finitum præsupponit ad suam actionem hoc unde causatum suum individualiter subsistit. Non ergo creat; sed solum hoc est agentis cujus esse est infinitum, quod est omnis entis comprehendens similitudinem, ut supra ostensum est (l. I, c. liv). 9. Adhuc, Quum omne quod fit ad hoc fiat ut sit, oportet, si aliquid fieri dicatur quod prius fuerit, quod hoc non fiat per se, sed per accidens; per se vero, illud quod prius non fuerit: ut, si ex albo fiat nigrum, fit quidem nigrum et coloratum; sed nigrum per se, quia fit ex non nigro; coloratum autem per accidens, nam prius coloratum erat. Sic igitur, quum fit aliquod ens, ut homo vel lapis, homo quidem per se fit, quia ex non homine; ens autem per accidens, quia non ex non-ente simpliciter, sed ex non ente hoc, ut Philosophus dicit, Physic. I, c. vii. Quum ergo aliquid fit omnino ex non-ente, ens per se fiet; oportet igitur quod ab eo 2 qui est per se causa essendi 3; nam effectus porportionaliter reducuntur in causas. Hoc autem est primum ens solum quod est causa entis, in quantum hujusmodi est; alia vero sunt causa essendi per accidens et non per se. Quum igitur producere ens ex non-ente præexsistente sit creare, oportet quod solius Dei sit creare. Huic autem veritati sacræ Scripturæ auctoritas attestatur, quæ Deum omnia creasse affirmat: In principio creavit Deus cælum et terram, Gen. 1, 4. Damas-, et cod. Bergom. 2, et cod. Bergom. (Ex translat. Burgondionis judicis, civis Pisani. — Cod. Reg. Parisiens. 2375.) « Quotquot autem sunt, qui substantiam ullam, quæcumque tandem illa sit, ab angelis creatam esse contendunt, horum ore diabolus loquiur. Cum enim creaturæ sint rerum minime conditores sunt. » (De fide orthodoxa, lib. II, cap. III. — Op. S. Joannis Damasceni, apud Migne, tom. I, col. 854.) cenus etiam in secundo sui libri De orthod. fid. l. II. dicit: « Quicunque vero aiunt Angelos creatores esse cujuscumque substantiae, hi omnes sunt patris sui diaboli filii; creaturæ enim existentes non sunt creatores. » Per hoc autem destruitur quorumdam philosophorum error, qui dixerunt Deum creasse primam substantiam separatam, et ab ea fuisse creatam secundam, et sic quodam ordine usque ad ultimam.
Caput 22
[lib.2.cap.22.n.1] CHAPTER XXII—That God is Almighty
AS creation is the work of God alone, so whatever beings are producible only by creation must be immediately produced by Him. Such are all spirits, the existence of which for the present let us suppose, and likewise all bodily matter. These several existences are immediate effects of creative power. Now power is not determined and limited to one effect, when it is productive of several effects immediately, and that not out of any pre-existent material. I say ‘immediately,’ because if the production were through intermediate agents, the diversity of effects might be ascribed to those intermediate causes. I say again ‘not out of any pre-existent material,’ because the same agent by the same action causes different effects according to the difference of material. God’s power then is not determined and limited to one effect.
2. Every perfect active power is co-extensive with and covers all cases of its own proper effect: thus perfect building power would extend to everything that could be called a house. But the divine power is of itself the cause of being, and being is its proper effect. Therefore that power extends to all things that are not inconsistent with the idea of being: for if the divine power were available only for one particular effect, it would not be the ordinary cause of being, as such, but cause of ‘this being.’ Now what is inconsistent with the idea of ‘being’ is the opposite of ‘being,’ which is ‘not-being.’ God then can do all things that do not include in themselves the element of not-being, that is to say, that do not involve a contradiction.
3. Every agent acts inasmuch as it is in actuality. According then to the mode of actuality of each agent in the mode of its active power. Now God is perfect actuality, having in Himself the perfections of all beings (B. I, Chap. ): therefore His active power extends to all things that are not inconsistent with actual being.
5. There are three ways in which an effect may not be in the power of an agent. In one way, because it has no affinity or likeness to the agent, for every agent acts to the production of its own likeness somehow: hence man cannot be the parent of brute or plant, though he can be parent of man, who is more than they. In another way, on account of the excellence of the effect, transcending the compass of the active power: thus the active power of matter cannot produce spirit. In a third way, on account of the material being determined to some effect, and the agent having no power over it: thus a carpenter cannot make a saw, because his art gives him no power over iron. But in none of these ways can an effect be withdrawn from the divine power: not for the unlikeness of the effect, since every being, in so much as it has
being, is like God (Chap. ): nor again for the excellence of the effect, since God is above all in goodness and perfection (B. I, Chapp. , ): nor lastly for the defect of the material, since God in His action needs no material (Chap. ).
This also is taught by divine Scripture as a tenet of faith. I am God Almighty, walk before me and be perfect (Gen. xvii, 1): I know that thou canst do all things (Job xlii, 2): No word shall be impossible with God (Luke i, 37).
Hereby is excluded the error of sundry philosophers, who have laid it down that God can do nothing except according to the course of nature. On such it is said: As though the Almighty had no power, they reckoned of him (Job xxii, 17).
[lib.2.cap.22.n.1] Quod Deus sit omnipotens. (I, q. xxv, a. 111; I, D. xx, a. 1 et 11.) Ex hoc autem apparet quod divina virtus non determinatur ad aliquem unum effectum. 1. Si enim solius Dei creare est, ab ipso immediate producta esse oportet quæ-cumque a sua causa produci non possunt nisi per modum creationis. Hujusmodi autem sunt omnes substantiae separatæ (quæ non sunt compositæ ex materia et forma) quas nunc esse supponatur; et similiter omnis materia corporalis. Hæc igitur diversa exsistentia prædictæ virtutis immediate effectus sunt. Nulla autem virtus producens immediate plures effectus non ex materia, est determinata ad unum effectum. Dico autem immediate, quia, si per media produceret, posset provenire diversitas ex parte mediarum causarum. Dico etiam non ex materia, quia idem agens et eadem actione causat diversos effectus secundum materiae diversitatem; sicut calor ignis, qui indurat lutum et liquefacit ceram. Dei igitur virtus non est determinata ad unum effectum. 2. Item, Omnis virtus perfecta ad ea omnia se extendit ad quæ suus per se et proprius effectus se extendere potest; sicut aedificativa ad omnia se extendit, si perfecta sit, quæ possunt rationem habere domus. Virtus autem divina est per se causa essendi, et esse est ejus proprius effectus, ut ex supradictis (c. xx1) patet. Ergo ad omnia illa se extendit, quæ rationi entis non repugnant; si enim in quemdam tantum effectum virtus ejus posset, non esset per se causa entis in quantum hujusmodi, sed hujus entis. Rationi autem entis repugnat oppositum entis, quod est non-ens. Omnia igitur Deus potest quæ in se rationem non-entis non includunt. Hæc autem sunt quæ contradictionem non implicant. Relinquitur igitur quod quidquid contradictionem non implicat Deus potest. 3. Adhuc, Omne agens agit in quantum actu est; secundum igitur modum actus uniuscujusque agentis est modus suæ virtutis in agendo; homo enim generat hominem, et ignis ignem. Deus autem est actus perfectus, in se omnium perfectiones habens, ut supra (l. I, c. xxviii) ostensum est. Est igitur sua virtus activa perfecta, ad omnia se habens quæ-cumque non repugnant rationi ejus, quod est esse in actu. Hoc autem est solum quod contradictionem implicat. Omnia igitur, præter hoc, Deus potest. 4. Amplius, Omni potentiæ passivæ respondet potentia activa; potentia enim propter actum est, sicut materia propter formam. Non potest autem ens in potentia consequi quod sit actu, nisi per virtutem alicujus exsistentis in actu. Otiosa esset igitur potentia nisi esset virtus activa agentis quæ eam in actum reducere possit, quum tamen nihil sit otiosum in rebus naturæ; et per hunc modum videmus quod omnia quæ sunt in potentia materiae generabilium et corruptibilium, possunt reduci in actum per virtutem activam quæ est in corpore cælesti quod est primum principium activum in natura. Sicut autem corpus cæleste est primum agens respectu corporum inferiorum, ita Deus est primum agens respectu totius entis creati. Quidquid igitur est in potentia entis creati, totum hoc Deus per suam virtutem activam facere potest. In potentia autem entis creati est omne quod enti creato non repugnat, sicut in potentia naturæ humanæ sunt omnia quæ naturam humanam non tollunt. Omnia igitur Deus potest. 5. Præterea, Quod effectus aliquis non subsit potentiæ alicujus agentis, potest ex tribus contingere. — Uno modo, per hoc quod non habet cum agente affinitatem vel similitudinem; agens enim om- 1 Sic cod. Bergom. et A, B, C, D. Hi tamen codd., excepto Berg., erronee addunt: « Primi » « In secundo sui primi libri. »: « In secundo sui libri. » 2 3 ne agit sibi simile aliquo modo; unde virtus quæ est in semine hominis non potest producere brutum vel plantam; hominem autem potest, qui tamen prædicta excedit. — Alio modo, propter excellentiam effectus qui transcendit proportionem virtutis activæ; sicut virtus activa corporalis non potest producere substantiam separatam. — Tertio modo, propter materiam determinatam ad effectum, in quam agens agere non potest; sicut carpentarius non potest facere serram, quia sua arte non potest agere in ferrum ex quo fit serra. Nullo autem istorum modorum potest aliquis effectus subtrahi divinæ virtuti; neque enim propter dissimilitudinem effectus aliquid ei impossibile esse potest, quum omne ens, in quantum habet esse, sit ei simile, ut supra (c. xv) ostensum est; nec etiam propter effectus excellentiam, quum ostensum sit (l. I, xli et xxviii) quod Deus est super omnia entia in bonitate et perfectione; nec iterum propter defectum materiæ, quum Ipse sit causa materiæ quæ non est possibilis causari nisi per creationem; Ipse etiam in agendo non requirit materiam, quum nullo præxsisistente rem in esse producat; et sic, propter materiæ defectum, ejus actio impediri non potest ab effectus productione. Restat igitur quod divina virtus non determinetur ad aliquem effectum, sed simpliciter omnia potest; quod est eum esse omnipotentem. Hinc est etiam quod divina Scriptura fide tenendum hoc tradit. Dicitur enim ex ore Dei: Ego Deus omnipotens: ambula coram me, et esto perfectus, Gen. xv ii, i. Et: Scio quia omnia potes, Job, xlii, 2. Et ex ore Angeli: Non erit impossibile apud Deum omne verbum, Luc. i, 37. Per hoc autem evacuatur quorumdam philosophorum error, qui posuerunt a Deo immediate produci unum effectum tantum, quasi virtus ejus ad illius productionem determinata esset; et quod Deus non potest aliquid facere, nisi secundum quod cursus rerum naturalium se habet. De quibus dicitur: Quasi nihil posset facere Omnipotens,æstimabant eum, Job, xxii, 17.
Caput 23
[lib.2.cap.23.n.1] CHAPTER XXIII—That God’s Action in Creation is not of Physical Necessity, but of Free Choice of Will
THE power of every necessary agent is determined and limited to one effect. That is the reason why all physical effects always come out in the same way, unless there be some interference: but acts of the will not so. But the divine power is not directed to one effect only (Chap. ). God then does not act by physical necessity, but by will.
2. Whatever does not involve a contradiction, is within the range of the divine power. But many things that do not exist in creation would still involve no contradiction if they did exist. This is most evidently the case in regard of the number and size and distances of the stars and other bodies. They would present no contradiction, no intrinsic absurdity, if they were arranged on another plan. Many things therefore lie within the range of divine power, that are not found in nature. But whoever does some and leaves out others of the things that he can do, acts by choice of will and not by physical necessity.
4. Since God’s action is His substance (B. I, Chap. ), the divine action cannot come under the category of those acts that are ‘transient’ and not in the agent, but must be an act ‘immanent’ in the agent, such as are acts of knowing and desiring, and none other. God therefore acts and operates by knowing and willing.
6. A self-determined agent is prior to an agent determined from without: for all that is determined from without is reducible to what is self-determined, or we should have process to infinity. But he who is not master of his own action is not self-determined: for he acts as led by another, not as his own leader. The prime agent then must act in such a way as to remain master of his own action. But no one is master of his own action except he be a voluntary agent.
7. Will-action is naturally prior to physical action: for that is naturally prior which is more perfect, albeit in the individual it be posterior in time. But will-action is the more perfect, as within our experience voluntary agents
are more perfect than physical. Therefore will-action must be assigned to God, the prime agent.
8. Where will-action and physical action go together, will-action represents the higher power and uses the other as an instrument. But the divine power is supreme, and therefore must act by will-action, not under physical necessity.
This truth also divine Scripture teaches us. All things, whatsoever he hath willed, the Lord hath done (Ps. cxxxiv, 6): Who worketh all things according to the counsel of his will (Eph. i, 11).
[lib.2.cap.23.n.1] Quod Deus non agit ex necessitate naturæ. Ex hoc autem ostenditur quod Deus agit in creaturis, non ex necessitate naturæ, sed per arbitrium voluntatis. 1. Omnis enim agentis per necessitatem naturæ virtus determinatur ad unum effectum; et inde est quod omnia naturalia semper eveniunt eodem modo, nisi sit impedimentum; non autem voluntaria. Divina virtus autem non ordinatur ad unum effectum tantum, ut supra (c. xxii) ostensum est. Deus igitur non agit per necessitatem naturæ, sed per voluntatem. 2. Adhuc, Quidquid non implicat contradictionem subest divinæ potentiæ, ut ostensum est (c. xxii). Multa autem non sunt in rebus creatis, quæ tamen, si essent, contradictionem non implicarent; sicut patet præcipue circa numerum et quantitatem et distantias stellarum et aliorum corporum, in quibus, si aliter se haberet ordo rerum, contradictio non implicaretur. Multa igitur subsunt divinæ potentiæ quæ in rerum natura non inveniuntur. Quicumque autem quædam eorum quæ potest facere facit et quædam non facit, agit per electionem voluntatis et non per necessitatem naturæ. Deus igitur non agit per necessitatem naturæ, sed per voluntatem. 3. Item, Unumquodque agens hoc modo agit secundum quod similitudo facti est in ipso; omne enim agens agit sibi simile. Omne autem quod est in altero est in eo per modum ejus in quo est. Quum igitur Deus sit per essentiam suam intelligens, ut supra (l. I, c. xliv) probatum est, oportet quod similitudo effectus sui sit in eo per modum intelligibilem. Igitur per intellectum agit. intellectus autem non agit aliquem effectum nisi mediante voluntate, cujus objectum est bonum intellectum quod movet agentem ut finis. Deus igitur per voluntatem agit, non per necessitatem naturæ. 4. Amplius, Secundum Philosophum, Metaphys. IX, c. v, duplex est actio: Una quæ manet in agente, et est perfectio ipsius, ut videre; alia quæ transit in, et cod. Berg. —: « Agit necessitate. » exteriora et est perfectio facti, sicut comburere in igne. Divina autem actio non potest esse de genere illarum actionum quæ non sunt in agente, quum sua actio sit sua substantia, ut ostensum est (l. I, c. lxxiii). Oportet igitur quod sit de genere illarum actionum quæ sunt in agente et sunt quasi perfectio ipsius. Hujusmodi autem non sunt nisi actiones cognoscentis et appetentis. Deus igitur cognoscendo et volendo agit et operatur; non igitur per necessitatem naturæ, sed per arbitrium voluntatis. 5. Adhuc, Deum agere propter finem ex hoc manifestum esse potest quod Universum non est a casu, sed ad aliquod bonum ordinatur, ut patet per Philosophum, Metaphys. IIX, c. VII et x. Primum autem agens propter finem oportet esse agens per intellectum et voluntatem; ea enim quæ intellectu carent agunt propter finem sicut in finem ab alio directa; quod quidem in artificialibus patet; nam sagittæ motus est ad determinatum signum ex directione sagittantis. Simile autem esse oportet in naturalibus; ad hoc enim quod aliquid directe in finem debitum ordinetur, requiritur cognitio ipsius finis et ejus quod est ad finem et debitæ proportionis inter utrumque; quod solum intelligentis est. Quum igitur Deus sit primum agens, non agit per necessitatem naturæ, sed per intellectum et voluntatem. 6. Præterea, Quod per se agit, prius est eo quod per aliud agit; omne enim quod est per aliud, reducitur in id quod est per se, ne in infinitum procedatur. Qui autem suæ actionis non est dominus, non per se agit; agit enim quasi ab alio actum, non quasi per seipsum agens. Oportet igitur primum agens hoc modo agere, quod sui actus dominus sit. Non est autem aliquis dominus sui actus nisi per voluntatem. Oportet igitur Deum, qui est primum agens, per voluntatem agere non per naturæ necessitatem, 7. Adhuc, Primo agenti debetur prima actio, sicut et primo mobili primus motus. Sed naturaliter actio voluntatis est prior quam actio naturæ; illud enim naturaliter prius est quod est perfectius, licet, in uno-quoque, sit tempore posterius. Actio autem agentis per voluntatem est perfectior; quod ex hoc patet quod perfectiora sunt ea apud nos quæ per voluntatem agunt, quam quæ per naturæ necessitatem. Ergo Deo, qui est primum agens, debetur actio quæ est per voluntatem. 8. Amplius, Ex hoc item apparet quod, ubi conjungitur utraque actio, superior est virtus quæ agit per voluntatem ea quæ agit per naturam, et utitur ea quasi instrumento; nam in homine superior est intellectus, qui agit per voluntatem, quam anima vegetabilis, quæ agit per naturæ necessitatem. Divina autem virtus est suprema in omnibus entibus. Igitur ipsa agit in res omnes per voluntatem, non per naturæ necessitatem. 9. Item, Voluntas habet pro objecto bonum secundum rationem boni; natura autem non attingit ad communem rationem boni, sed ad hoc bonum quod est sua perfectio. Quum igitur omne agens agat secundum quod ad bonum intendit, quia finis movet agentem, oportet quod agens per voluntatem ad agens per necessitatem naturæ comparetur sicut agens universale ad agens particulare. Agens autem particulare se habet ad agens universale sicut ea quæ posterius sunt et sicut ejus instrumentum. Ergo oportet quod primum agens sit per voluntatem et non per necessitatem naturæ agens. Hanc etiam veritatem divina Scriptura nos docet; dicitur enim: Omnia quæ-cumque voluit, Dominus fecit, Psalm. cxxxiv, 6. Et: Qui operatur omnia secundum consilium voluntatis suæ, Ephes, I, 14. — Et Hilarius De synodis, art. xxiv, n° 58, (t. II, col. 520): « Omnibus creaturis substantiam voluntas Dei attulit »; et infra: « Talia enim cuncta creata sunt qualia esse Deus voluit. Per hoc etiam removetur error quorumdam philosophorum qui dicebant Deum agere per naturæ necessitatem.
Caput 24
[lib.2.cap.24.n.1] CHAPTER XXIV—That God acts by His Wisdom
THE will is moved by some apprehension. But God acts by willing. Since then in God there is intellectual apprehension only, and He understands nothing otherwise than by understanding Himself, whom to understand is to be wise (B. I, Chap. ), it follows that God works out all things according to His wisdom.
2. Every agent acts in so far as it has within it something corresponding to the effect to be produced. But in every voluntary agent, as such, what corresponds to the effect to be produced is some intellectual presentation of the same. Were there no more than a mere physical disposition to produce the effect, the agent could act only to one effect, because for one physical cause there is only one physical mode of operation (ratio naturalis unius est una tantum). Every voluntary agent therefore produces its effect according to the mode of intellectual operation proper to itself. But God acts by willing, and therefore it is by the wisdom of His intellect that he brings things into being.
3. The function of wisdom is to set things in order. Now the setting of things in order can be effected only through a knowledge of the relation and proportion of the said things to one another, and to some higher thing which is the end and purpose of them all: for the mutual order of things to one another is founded upon their order to the end which they are to serve. But it is proper to intelligence alone to know the mutual relations and proportions of things. Again, it is proper to wisdom to judge of things as they stand to their highest cause. Thus every setting of things in order by wisdom must be the work of some intelligence. But the things produced by God bear an orderly relation to one another, which cannot be attributed to chance, since it (sit not sint) obtains always or for the most part. Thus it is evident that God, in bringing things into being, intended them in a certain order. Therefore His production of them was a work of wisdom.
All this is confirmed by divine authority, for it is said: Thou has made
all things in wisdom (Ps. ciii, 24); and the Lord in wisdom founded the earth (Prov. iii, 19).
Hereby is excluded the error of some who said that all things depend on the absolute will of God, independent of any reason.
[lib.2.cap.24.n.1] Quod Deus per suam sapientiam agit. Ex hoc autem apparet quod Deus effectus suos producit secundum suam sapientiam. 4. Voluntas enim ad agendum ex aliqua apprehensione movetur; bonum enim apprehensum est objectum voluntatis. Deus autem est agens per volunta- Berg.: « Qualia Deus facere voluit. » tem, ut ostensum est (c. xxiii). Quum igitur in Deo non sit nisi intellectualis apprehensio, nihilque intelligat nisi intelligendo se, quem intelligere est sapientem esse, relinquitur quod omnia Deus secundum suam sapientiam operatur. 2. Item, Omne agens agit sibi simile; unde oportet quod secundum hoc agat unumquodque agens secundum quod habet similitudinem sui effectus, sicut ignis calefacit secundum modum sui caloris. Sed, in quolibet agente per voluntatem in quantum hujusmodi, est similitudo sui effectus secundum intellectus apprehensionem; si enim solum secundum naturæ dispositionem inesset similitudo effectus agenti voluntario, non ageret nisi unum, quia ratio naturalis unius est una tantum. Omne igitur agens voluntarium producit effectum secundum rationem sui intellectus. Deus autem agit per voluntatem, ut ostensum est (c. xxiii). Igitur per sapientiam sui intellectus res in esse producit. 3. Amplius, Secundum Philosophum, Metaphys. I, c. 11, ordinare sapientis est; ordinatio enim aliquorum fieri non potest nisi per cognitionem habitudinis et proportionis ordinatorum ad invicem et ad aliquid altius quod est finis eorum: ordo enim aliquorum ad invicem est propter ordinem eorum ad finem. Cognoscere autem habitudines et proportiones aliquorum ad invicem, est solius habentis intellectum; judicare autem de aliquibus per causam altissimam, sapientiae est; et sic oportet quod omnis ordinatio per sapientiam alicujus intelligentis fiat; unde, et in mechanicis, ordinatores aedificiorum sapientes illius artificii dicuntur. Res autem quae sunt a Deo productæ ordinem ad invicem habent non casualem, quum sint semper vel ut in pluribus; et sic patet quod Deus res in esse produxit, eas ordinando. Deus igitur per suam sapientiam res in esse produxit. 4. Adhuc, Ea quae sunt a voluntate, vel sunt agibilia, sicut actus virtutum, qui sunt perfectiones operantis, vel transeunt in exteriorem materiam, quae factibilia dicuntur; et sic patet quod res creatæ sunt a Deo sicut factæ. Factibilium autem ratio est ars, sicut dicit Philosophus, De partib. animal. I, c. 1. — Ethic. VI, iv. Comparantur ergo omnes res creatæ ad Deum sicut artificiata ad artificem. Sed artifex, per ordinem suæ sapientiae et intellectus, artificiata in esse producit. Ergo et Deus omnes creaturas per ordinem sui intellectus fecit. Hoc autem divina auctoritate confirmatur; nam dicitur: Omnia in sapientia fecisti, Psalm. ciii, 24. Et: Dominus sapientia fundavit terram, Proverb. iii, 19. Per hoc autem excluditur quorum-dam error, qui dicebant omnia ex simplici divina voluntate dependere, absque aliqua ratione. « Utrum Deus possit facere quod non decet eum facere? Factum aliquod dicitur honestum sive decens, uno modo ex ordine quod habet ad facientem; et hoc modo bonus et sapiens numquam facit nisi quod decet ejus statum et quod honestum sit eum facere; alio modo ex ordine ad aliud factum, et hoc dupliciter. Sicut etiam indecens et inhonestum dicitur secundum ordinem aliquem particularem ad aliquam causam particularem, et ad aliqua facta particularia, et sic est indecens, vel inhonestum aliquod a Deo malum pœnæ, sicut contigit in cæco de quo Joan. ix. Indecens enim fuit illum esse cæcum in ordine ad sua merita, et in ordine ad perfectionem aliorum sensuum in ipso. Alio modo dicitur aliquid indecens vel inhonestum secundum ordinem ad causam universalem et ad omnia alia; et sic nihil est inhonestum nisi malum culpæ. Nullum enim malum pœnæ contingit in parte quod non congruit universo, et est ejus aliqualis certa causa, licet frequenter occulta; et sic decens et honestum fuit quod ille nasceretur cæcus de quo Joan. ix, quia ex hoc provenit quod decens et honestum, scilicet, Dei glorificatio. De illo ergo quod est indecens isto secundo modo est dicendum quod Deus non potest facere quod non decet eum facere; sed de illo quod est indecens primo modo dicendum quod potest facere quod est indecens, non tamen sub ratione illa qua est indecens aspiciendo ad ordinem et causam particularem, sed sub ratione qua est decens, aspiciendo ad ordinem et causam universalem, prout patet in prædicto cæco; et sic dicendum est quod Deus nullo modo potest facere quod nullo modo et secundum nullum ordinem decet eum facere: imo quidquid facit decet eum facere, et quidquid facere potest; sive, si faceret, deceret eum facere, et nonnisi secundum ordinem decentem faceret. Unde si potest Petrum damnare et Judam salvare de potentia absoluta, hoc non est nisi quia deceret eum hoc facere secundum aliquem ordinem justitiæ si faceret; et sic nihil potest Deus facere de potentia absoluta quin id possit de potentia ordinata, licet secundum alium ordinem quam sit ille propter quem dimittit id facere; ita tamen quod semper facit quod melius est et rationabilius, aspiciendo ad totum ordinem universi secundum quod multa non facit quae facere posset. » (Ex cod. G. de F.)
Caput 25
[lib.2.cap.25.n.1] CHAPTER XXV—In what sense some things are said to be Impossible to the Almighty
IN God there is active power, but no potentiality. Now possibility is spoken of both as involving active power and as involving potentiality. Those things then are impossible to God, the possibility of which would mean in Him potentiality. Examples: God cannot be any material thing: He cannot suffer change, nor defect, nor fatigue, nor forgetfulness, nor defeat, nor violence, nor repentance, anger, or sadness.
Again, since the object and effect of active power is some produced reality, it must be said to be impossible for God to make or produce anything inconsistent with the notion of ‘reality,’ or ‘being,’ as such, or inconsistent with the notion of a reality that is ‘made,’ or ‘produced,’ inasmuch as it is ‘made,’ or ‘produced.’ Examples: God cannot make one and the same thing together to be and not to be. He cannot make opposite attributes to be in the same subject in the same respect. He cannot make a thing wanting in any of its essential constituents, while the thing itself remains: for instance, a man without a soul. Since the principles of some sciences, as logic, geometry, and arithmetic, rest on the formal, or abstract, constituents on which the essence of a thing depends, it follows that God cannot effect anything contrary to these principles, as that genus should not be predicable of species, or that lines drawn from the centre of a circle to the circumference should not be equal. God cannot make the past not to have been. Some things also God cannot make, because they would be inconsistent with the notion of a creature, as such: thus He cannot create a God, or make anything equal to Himself, or anything that shall maintain itself in being, independently of Him. He cannot do what He cannot will: He cannot make Himself cease to be, or cease to be good or happy; nor can He will anything evil, or sin. Nor can His will be changeable: He cannot therefore cause what He has once willed not to be fulfilled. There is however this difference between this last impossibility on God’s part and all others that have been enumerated. The others are absolute impossibilities for God either to will or do: but the things now spoken of God might will and do if His will or power be considered absolutely, but not if it be considered under the presupposition of His will to the contrary. And therefore all such phrases as, ‘God cannot act contrary to what He has arranged to do,’ are to be understood in sensu composito; but, understood in sensu diviso, they are false, for in that sense they regard the power and will of God considered absolutely.
[lib.2.cap.25.n.1] Qualiter Deus 1, omnipotens, dicatur quædam non posse. (I, q. xxv, a. 111 et iv.) Ex praemissis autem accipi potest quod, quamvis Deus sit omnipotens, aliqua tamen dicitur non posse. Ostensum est enim supra (c. vii) in Deo esse potentiam activam, potentiam vero passivam, in Deo non esse, ut supra in primo libro (c. xvi) ostensum est. Secundum autem utramque potentiam dicimur posse. Illaigitur Deus non potest quæ posse potentiae passivæ est 2. Quæ autem hujusmodi sint investigandum est. Primo quidem igitur potentia activa est ad agere, potentia autem passiva ad esse; unde in illis solis est potentia ad esse, quæ materiam habent contrarietati subjectam. Quum igitur in Deo potentia passiva non sit, quidquid ad suum esse non pertinet Deus non potest; non potest igitur Deus esse corpus aut aliquid hujusmodi. 2. Adhuc, Hujusmodi, potentiae passiva motus actus est. Deus igitur, cui potentia passiva non competit, mutari non potest. — Potest autem ulterius ostendi et concludi quod non potest mutari secundum singulas mutationum species, ut quod non potest augeri, vel minui, aut alterari, aut generari, aut corrumpi. 3. Amplius, Quum deficere quoddam corrumpi sit, sequitur quod in nullo deficere potest. 4. Præterea, Defectus omnis secundum privationem aliquam est. Privationis autem subjectum potentia materiae est. Nullo igitur modo potest deficere. 5. Adhuc, Quum fatigatio sit per defectum virtutis, oblivio autem per defectum scientiæ, patet quod neque fatigari neque oblivisci potest. 6. Amplius, Neque vinci neque violentiam pati; hæc enim non sunt nisi ejus quod natum est moveri. 7. Similiter autem, neque pœnitere potest 3 neque irasci aut tristari, quum hæc omnia imperfectionem et passionem et defectum sonent. 8. Rursus, Quia potentiæ activæ objectum et effectus est ens factum (nulla autem potentia operationem habet ubi deficit ratio sui objecti, sicut visus non videt, deficiente visibili in actu), oportet quod Deus dicatur non posse quidquid est contra rationem entis in quantum est ens, vel facti entis in quantum est factum. Quæ autem sint hujusmodi inquirendum est. Primo quidem igitur contra rationem entis est quod entis rationem tollit. Tollitur autem ratio entis per suum oppositum, sicut ratio hominis per oppositum ejus vel partium 4 ipsius; oppositum autem entis est non-ens. Hoc igitur Deus non potest ut faciat simul unum et idem esse et non esse; quod est contradictoria esse simul. 2. Adhuc, Contradictio in contrariis et privative oppositis includitur; sequitur enim, si est album et nigrum, quod sit album et non album; et si est videns et cæcum, quod sit videns et non videns. Unde ejusdem rationis est quod Deus non possit facere opposita simul inesse eidem secundum idem. 3. Amplius, Ad remotionem cujuslibet principii essentialis sequitur remotio ipsius rei. Si igitur Deus non potest facere rem simul esse et non esse, nec etiam potest facere quod rei desit aliquid suorum principiorum essentialium, ipsa remanente; sicut quod homo non habeat animam. 4. Præterea, Quum principia quarum-dam scientiarum, ut Logicæ, Geometriæ et Arithmeticæ, sumantur ex solis principii formalibus rerum, ex quibus essentia rei dependet, sequitur quod contraria horum principiorum Deus facere non possit; sicut quod genus non sit prædicabile de specie, vel quod lineæ ductæ a centro ad circumferentiam non sint aquales, aut quod triangulus rectilineus non habeat tres angulos aquales duobus rectis. 5. Hinc etiam patet quod Deus non potest facere quod præteritum non fuerit; nam hoc etiam contradictionem includit; ejusdem namque necessitatis est aliquid esse dum est, et aliquid fuisse dum fuit. 6. Sunt etiam quædam quæ repugnant sonent. 1, et cod. Bergom. rationi entis facti, in quantum hujusmodi, quæ etiam Deus facere non potest; nam omne quod facit Deus, oportet esse factum. Ex hoc autem patet quod Deus non potest facere Deum; nam de ratione entis facti est quod esse suum ex alia causa dependeat; quod est contra rationem ejus quod dicitur Deus, ut ex superioribus (l. I, c. xiii) patet. 7. Eadem etiam ratione, non potest Deus facere aliquid aquale sibi; nam id cujus esse ab alio non dependet, prius est, in essendo et in cæteris dignitatibus, eo quod ab alio dependet; quod ad rationem entis facti pertinet. 8. Similiter etiam Deus facere non potest quod aliquid conservetur in esse sine Ipso; nam conversatio esse uniuscu-jusque dependet a causa sua; unde oportet quod, remota causa, removeatur et effectus; si igitur res aliqua possit esse quæ a Deo non conservaretur in esse, non esset effectus ejus. 9. Rursus, Quia Ipse est per voluntatem agens (c. xxiii) illa non potest facere quæ non potest velle. Quæ autem velle non possit considerari potest, si accipiamus qualiter in divina voluntate necessitas esse possit; nam quod necesse est esse, impossibile est non esse; et quod impossibile est esse, necesse est non esse. Patet autem ex hoc, quod non potest Deus facere se non esse bonum aut beatum; quia de necessitate vult se esse bonum et beatum, ut ostensum est (l. I, c. lxxx). 10. Item, Ostensum est supra (l. I, c. xcv), quod Deus non potest velle aliquod malum; unde patet quod Deus pecare non potest. 11. Similiter, Ostensum est supra (l. I, c. xiii) quod Dei voluntas non potest esse mutabilis. Sic igitur non potest facere id quod est a se volitum non impleri. Sciendum tamen quod hoc alio modo dicitur non posse a præmissis; nam præmissa Deus simpliciter nec velle, nec facere potest; hujusmodi autem Deus quidem facere velle potest, si ejus voluntas vel potentia absolute consideretur, non autem si consideretur, præsupposita voluntate de opposito; nam voluntas divina, respectu creaturarum, necessitatem non habet nisi ex suppositione, ut in primo ostensum est (l. I, c. lxxxiii). Et ideo omnes istæ locutiones: Deus non potest facere contraria his quæ disposuit facere; et quæcumque similiter discuntur, intelliguntur composite; sic enim implicant suppositionem divinæ voluntatis de opposito. Si autem intelligentur divise, sunt falsæ, quia respiciunt potentiam et voluntatem Dei absolute. Sicut autem Deus agit per voluntatem, ita et per intellectum et scientiam, ut ostensum est (c. xxiii et xxiv.) Pari igitur ratione, non potest facere quæ se facturum non præscivit, aut dimittere quæ se facturum præscivit; quia non potest facere quæ facere non vult, aut dimittere quæ vult. Eodem modo conceditur et negatur utrumque, scilicet ut prædicta non posse dicatur, non quidem absolute, sed sub conditione vel suppositione.
Caput 26
[lib.2.cap.26.n.1] CHAPTER XXVI—That the Divine Understanding is not limited to certain fixed Effects
NOW that it has been shown (Chap. ) that the divine power does not act of physical necessity, but by understanding and will, lest any one should think that God’s understanding or knowledge extend only to certain fixed effects, and that thus God acts under stress of ignorance, though not under stress of physical constraint, it remains to show that His knowledge or understanding is bounded by no limits in its view of effects.
2. We have shown above (B. I, Chap. ) the infinity of the divine essence. Now the plane of the infinite can never be reached by any piling up of finite quantities, because the infinite infinitely transcends any finite quantities however many, even though they were infinite in number. But no other being than God is infinite in essence: all others are essentially included under limited genera and species. Howsoever then and to whatsoever extent the effects of divine production are comprehended, it is ever within the compass of the divine essence to reach beyond them and to be the foundation of more. The divine understanding then, in perfectly knowing the divine essence (B. I, Chap. ), transcends any infinity of actual effects of divine power and therefore is not necessarily limited to these or those effects.
4. If the causality of the divine understanding were limited, as a necessary agent, to any effects, it would be to those effects which God actually brings into being. But it has been shown above (B. I, Chap. ) that God understands even things that neither are nor shall be nor have been.
5. The divine knowledge stands to the things produced by God as the knowledge of an artist to the knowledge of his art. But every art extends to all that can possibly be contained under the kind of things subject to that art, as the art of building to all houses. But the kind of thing subject to the divine art is ‘being’ (genus subjectum divinae artis est ens), since God by His understanding is the universal principal of being (Chapp. , ). Therefore the divine understanding extends its causality to all things that are not inconsistent with the notion of ‘being,’ and is not limited to certain fixed effects.
Hence it is said: Great is our Lord, and great his power, and of his wisdom; there is no reckoning by number (Ps. cxlvi, 5).
Hereby is excluded the position of some philosophers who said that from God’s understanding of Himself there emanates a certain arrangement of things in the universe, as though He did not deal with creatures at His discretion fixing the limits of each creature and arranging the whole universe, as the Catholic faith professes. It is to be observed however that, though the divine understanding is not limited to certain effects, God nevertheless has determined to Himself fixed effects to be produced in due order by His wisdom, as it is said: Thou hast disposed all things in measure, number and weight (Wisd. xi, 21).
[lib.2.cap.26.n.1] Quod divinus intellectus ad determinatos effectus non coarctatur. Quoniam autem ostensum est (c. xxii) quod divina potentia ad determinatos effectus non limitatur, ac, per hoc, quod de necessitate naturæ non agit, sed per intellectum et voluntatem; ne cui forte videatur quod ejus intellectus vel scientia ad determinatos effectus solummodo possit extendi, et sic agat ex necessitate scientia, quamvis non ex necessitate naturæ; restat ostendere quod ejus scientia vel intellectus nullis effectuum limitibus coarctatur. 1. Ostensum est enim supra (lib. I, c. xlix) quod Deus omnia alia quæa Deo produci possunt comprehendit, suam essentiam intelligendo, in quo omnia hujusmodi esse necessarium est per aliquaem similitudinem, sicut effectus virtute sunt in causa. Si igitur potentia divina ad determinatos effectus non coarctatur, ut supra (c. xxii) ostensum est, necessarium est et de ejus intellectu similem sententiam proferre. 2. Adhuc, Divinæ essentia infinitatem supra (l. I, c. xliii) ostendimus. Infinitum autem, quantalibet additione finitorum facta, adæquari non potest, quin in infinitum excedat quantalibet finita, etiamsi numero infinita exsistant. Nihil Sic cod. Bergom., J, et cod. Bergom. autem aliud præter Deum constat esse secundum essentiam infinitum, quum omnia alia secundum essentiae rationem sub determinatis generibus et specibus concludantur. Quomodocumque igitur divini effectus et quatumcumque comprehendantur, semper in divina essentia est ut eos excedat, et ita plurium ratio esse possit. Divinus igitur intellectus, qui perfecte divinam essentiam cognoscit, ut supra (l. I, c. xlvii) ostensum est, omnem infinitatem effectuum transcendit. Non igitur necessitate ad hos vel ad illos effectus coarctatur. 3. Item, Supra (l. I, c. lxix) ostensum est quod divinus intellectus infinitorum est cognitor. Deus autem, per sui intellectus scientiam, res producit in esse. Causalitas igitur divini intellectus ad finitos effectus non coarctatur. 4. Amplius, Si divini intellectus causalitas ad effectus aliquos, quasi de necessitate agens, coarctaretur, hoc esset respectu illorum qui ab eo producuntur in esse. Hoc autem esse non potest, quum supra (l. I, c. lxvi) ostensum sit quod Deus intelligit etiam quæ nec sunt, nec erunt, nec fuerunt. Non igitur Deus agit ex necessitate sui intellectus vel scientiae. 5. Præterea, Divina scientia comparatur ad res ab Ipso productas sicut scientia artificis ad res artificiatas. Quælibet autem ars se extendit ad omnia quæ possunt contineri sub genere subjecto illius artis, sicut ars ædificatoria ad omnes domos; genus autem subjectum divinæ artis est ens, quum Ipsse per suum intellectum sit universale principium entis, ut supra (c. xxi et xxiv) ostensum est. Igitur intellectus divinus ad omnia quibus entis ratio non repugnat suam causalitatem extendit. Hujusmodi vero omnia, quantum est de se, nata sunt sub ente contineri. Non igitur divinus intellectus ad aliquos determinatos effectus coarctatur. Hinc est quod dicitur: Magnus Dominus noter, et magna virtus ejus, et sapientiæ ejus non est numerus, Psalm. cxlvi, 5. Per hoc autem excluditur quorumdam philosophorum positio dicentium quod, ex hoc quod Deus seipsum intelligit, fluit ab ipso de necessitate talis rerum dispositio, quasi non suo arbitrio limitet singula et universa disponat, sicut fides catholica profitetur. Sciendum tamen quod, quamvis divinus intellectus ad certos effectus non coarctetur, Ipse tamen sibi statuit determinatos effectus quos per suam sapientiam ordinate producat, sicut dicitur: Omnia in mensura, numero et pondere disposuisti, Domine, Sap. xi, 21.
Caput 28
[lib.2.cap.28.n.1] CHAPTER XXVIII—That God has not brought things into being in discharge of any Debt of Justice
JUSTICE is to another, rendering him his due. But, antecedently to the universal production of all things, nothing can be presupposed to which anything is due.
2. An act of justice must be preceded by some act, whereby something is made another’s own; and that act, whereby first something is made another’s own, cannot be an act of justice. But by creation a created thing first begins to have anything of its own. Creation then cannot proceed from any debt of justice.
3. No man owes anything to another, except inasmuch as he in some way depends on him, receiving something from him. Thus every man is in his neighbour’s debt on God’s account; from whom we have received all things. But God depends on none, and needs nothing of any.
5. Though nothing created precedes the universal production of all things, something uncreated does precede it: for the divine goodness precedes as the end and prime motive of creation, according to Augustine, who says: “Because God is good, we exist” (De Verb. Apost. Serm. 13). But the divine goodness needs nothing external for its perfection. Nor is it necessary, for all that God wills His own goodness, that He should will the production of things other than Himself. God wills His own goodness necessarily, but He does not necessarily will other things. Therefore the production of creatures is not a debt of necessity to the divine goodness. But, taking justice in the wider sense of the term, there may be said to be justice in the creation of the world, inasmuch as it befits the divine goodness.
7. But if we consider the divine plan, according as God has planned it in His understanding and will to bring things into being, from that point of view the production of things does proceed from the necessity of the divine plan (B. I, Chap. ): for it is impossible for God to have planned the doing of anything, and afterwards not to do it. Thus fulfilment is necessarily due to His every plan. But this debt is not sufficient to constitute a claim of justice, properly so called, in the action of God creating the world: for justice, properly so called, is not of self to self.
Hence it is said: Who hath first given to Him, and recompense shall be made him? (Rom. xi, 35.) Who hath first given to me, that I may repay him? (Job xli, 2.)
Hereby is shut out the error of some who have tried to prove that God can do no otherwise than as He does, because He can do no otherwise than as He owes, or ought.
[lib.2.cap.28.n.1] Qualiter, in rerum productione debitum justitiæ invenitur. Ostendere autem ex prædictis oportet quod Deus non necessitate operatus est in rerum creatione, quasi ex debito justitiæ res in esse producerit. 1° Justitia enim, secundum Philosophum, Ethic. V, c. i et mii, ad alterum est cui debitum reddit. Nihil autem universali rerum productioni præsupponitur, cui aliquid debeatur. Ipsa igitur universalis rerum productio ex debito justitiæ provenire non potuit. 2. Item, Quum justitiæ actus sit reddere unicuique quod suum est, actum justitiæ præcedit actus quo aliquid alicujus suum efficitur, sicut in rebus humanis patet; aliquis enim laborando meretur suum effici quod retributor, per actum justitiæ, ipsi reddit; ille igitur actus, quo primo aliquid suum alicujus efficitur, non potest esse actus justitiæ. Sed, per creationem, res creata primo incipit aliquid suum habere. Non igitur creatio ex debito justitiæ procedit. 3. Præterea, Nullus debet aliquid alteri, nisi per hoc quod aliqualiter dependet ab ipso, vel aliquid accipit ab eo vel ab altero, ratione cujus alteri debet; sic enim filius est debitor patri, quia accipit esse ab eo; dominus ministro, quia ab eo accepit famulatum quo indiget; omnis homo proximo, propter Deum a quo bona cuncta suscepimus. Sed Deus a nullo dependet, nec indiget aliquo quod ab altero suscipiat, ut ex supra-dictis (l. I, c. xxviii et xiii) manifeste apparet. Deus igitur non produxit res in esse ex aliquo justitiæ debito. 4. Amplius, In quolibet genere, quod propter se est est prius eo quod est propter aliud; illud igitur quod est primum simpliciter inter omnes causas, est causa propter seipsum tantum. Quod autem agit ex debito justitiæ, non agit propter seipsum tantum; agit enim propter illud cui debet. Deus igitur, quum sit prima causa et primum agens, res in esse produxit non ex debito justitiæ. Hinc est quod dicitur: Quis prior dedit illi, et retribuetur ei? Quoniam ex ipso et per ipsum, et in ipso sunt omnia, Rom. xi, 35-36. Et: Quis ante dedit mihi, ut reddam ei? Omnia quæ sub cælo sunt, mea sunt, Job, xli. 2. Per hoc autem excluditur quorumdam error probare nitentium quod Deus non potest facere nisi quod facit, quia non potest facere nisi quod debet; non enim ex debito justitiæ res operatur, ut ostensum est. Licet autem universalem rerum productionem nihil creatum præcedat, cui aliquid debitum esse possit, præcedit tamen aliquod increatum, quod est creationis principium. Quod quidem dupliciter considerari potest. Ipsa enim divina bonitas præcedit ut finis et primum motivum ad creandum, secundum Augustinum qui dicit: « Quia Deus bonus est, sumus, » De verb. apost. Serm. xiii. Scientia autem ejus et voluntas præcedunt sicut ea quibus res in esse producuntur. Si igitur ipsam divinam bonitatem absolute consideremus, nullum debitum in creatione rerum invenimus. Dicitur enim uno modo aliquid alicui debitum, ex ordine alterius ad ipsum, quod scilicet in ipsum debet referre quod ab ipso accipit; sicut debitum est benefactori quod ei de beneficiis gratiae agantur, in quantum ille qui accepit beneficium hoc ei debet. Hic tamen modus debiti in rerum creatione locum non habet, quum non sit aliquid præexsistens cui posset competere aliquid Deo debere, nec aliquod ejus beneficium præexsistat. Alio modo dicitur aliquid alicui debitum secundum se; hoc enim est ex necessitate alicui debitum, quod ad ejus perfectionem requiritur; sicut homini debitum est habere manus vel virtutem, quia sine his perfectus esse non potest. Divina autem bonitas nullo exteriori indiget ad sui perfectionem. Non est igitur per modum necessitatis ei debita creaturarum productio. 5. Adhuc, Deus voluntate sua res in esse produxit ut supra (c. xxvii) ostensum est. Non est autem necessarium, si Deus suam bonitatem vult esse, quod velit alia a se produci; hujus enim conditionalis antecedens est necessarium, non autem consequens; ostensum est enim (l. I, c. lxxx) quod Deus ex necessitate vult suam bonitatem esse, non autem ex necessitate vult alia. Igitur non ex necessitate debetur divinæ bonitatati creaturarum productio. 6. Amplius, Ostensum est (c. xxviii, xxvi, xxvii) quod Deus produxit res in esse non ex necessitate naturæ, neque ex necessitate scientiae, neque ex necessitate voluntatis, neque justitiæ. Nullo igitur modo necessitatis, divinæ bonitatati est debitum quod res in esse producantur. Potest tamen dici esse sibi debitum per modum cujusdam condecentiae. Justitia autem proprie dicta debitum necessitatis requirit; quod enim ex justitia alicui redditur, ex necessitate juris ei debetur. Si cut igitur creaturarum productio non potest dici fuisse ex debitio justitiæ quo Deus creaturæ sit debitor, ita nec ex tali debito justitiæ quo suæ bonitatati sit debitor, si justitia proprie accipiatur. Large tamen justitia accepta, potest dici in creatione rerum justitia, in quantum divinam condectet bonitatem. Si vero divinam dispositionem consideremus, quo modo Deus disposuit suo intellectu et voluntate res in esse producere, sic rerum productio ex necessitate divinæ dispositionis procedit. Non enim potest esse quod Deus aliquid se facturum disposerit, quod postmodum ipse non faciat; alias ejus dispositio vel esset mutabilis vel infirma. Ejus igitur dispositioni ex necessitate debetur quod impleatur. Sed tamen hoc debitum non sufficit ad rationem justitiae propriæ dictæ in rerum creatione, in qua considerari non potest nisi actio Dei creantis. Ejusdem autem ad seipsum non est jnstitia proprie dicta, ut patet per Philosophum, Ethic. V, c. 1 et 111. Non igitur proprie dici potest quod Deus ex debito justitiae res in esse produxit ea ratione qua per scientiam et voluntatem se disposuit productur.
Caput 30
[lib.2.cap.30.n.1] CHAPTER XXX—How Absolute Necessity may have place in Creation
ALTHOUGH all things depend on the will of God as their first cause, and this first cause is not necessitated in its operation except on the supposition of its own purpose, not for that however is absolute necessity excluded from creation, need we aver that all things are contingent.
1. There are things in creation which simply and absolutely must be. Those things simply and absolutely must be, in which there is no possibility of their not being. Some things are so brought into being by God that there is in their nature a potentiality of not being: which happens from this, that the matter in them is in potentiality to receive another form. Those things then in which either there is no matter, or, if there is any, it is not open to receive another form, have no potentiality of not being: such things then simply and absolutely must be. If it be said that things which are of nothing,
of themselves tend to nothingness, and thus there is in all creatures a potentiality of not being, — it is manifest that such a conclusion does not follow. For things created by God are said to tend to nothingness only in the way in which they are from nothing; and that is only in respect of the power of the agent who has created them. Thus then creatures have no potentiality of not being: but there is in the Creator a power of giving them being or of stopping the influx of being to them.
4. The further a thing is distant from the self-existent, that is, from God, the nigher it is to not being; and the nigher it is to God, the further it is withdrawn from not being. Those things therefore which are nighest to God, and therefore furthest removed from not being, — in order that the hierarchy of being (ordo rerum) may be complete, — must be such as to have in themselves no potentiality of not being, or in other words, their being must be absolutely necessary.
We observe therefore that, considering the universe of creatures as they depend on the first principles of all things, we find that they depend on the will (of God), — not as necessarily arising therefrom, except by an hypothetical, or consequent necessity, as has been explained (Chap. ). But, compared with proximate and created principles, we find some things having an absolute necessity. There is no absurdity in causes being originally brought into being without any necessity, and yet, once they are posited in being, having such and such an effect necessarily following from them. That such natures were produced by God, was voluntary on His part: but that, once established, a certain effect proceeds from them, is a matter of absolute necessity. What belongs to a thing by reason of its essential principles, must obtain by absolute necessity in all things.
[lib.2.cap.30.n.1] Qualiter in rebus creatis esse potest necessitas absoluta. Licet autem omnia ex Dei voluntate dependeant sicut ex prima causa, quæ in operando necessitatem non habet nisi ex sui propositi suppositione, non tamen propter hoc absoluta necessitas a rebus excluditur, ut sit necessarium nos fateri omnia contingentia esse; quod posset alicui videri ex hoc quod a causa sua non de necessitate absoluta fluxerunt, quum soleant in rebus esse contingentes effectus qui ex causa sua non de necessitate procedunt. 1. Sunt enim quædam, in rebus creatis, quæ simpliciter et absolute necesse est esse; illas enim res simpliciter et absolute necesse est esse, in quibus non est possibilitas ad non esse. Quædam autem res sic sunt a Deo in esse productæ, ut in earum natura sit potentia ad non esse; quod quidem contingit ex hoc quod materia in eis est in potentia ad aliam formam. Illæ igitur res in quibus non est materia, vel, si est, non est possibilis ad aliam formam, non ha-bent potentiam ad non esse; eas igitur simpliciter et absolute necesse est esse. Si autem dicatur quod ea quæ sunt ex nihilo, quantum est de se, in nihilum tendunt, et sic in omnibus creaturis inest potentia ad non esse, manifestum est hoc non sequi. Dicuntur enim res creatæ a Deo eo modo in nihilum tendere, quo sunt ex nihilo; quod quidem non est nisi secundum potentiam agentis. Sic igitur et rebus creatis non inest potentia ad non esse, sed Creatori inest potentia ut eis det esse vel eis desinat esse influere; quum non ex necessitate naturæ agat ad rerum productionem, sed ex voluntate, ut (c. xxiii) ostensum est. 2. Item, Ex quo res creatæ ex divina voluntate in esse procedunt, oportet eas tales esse quales Deus eas esse voluit. Per hoc autem quod dicitur Deum produxisse res per voluntatem, non per necessitatem, non tollitur quin voluerit aliquas res esse quæ de necessitate sint, et aliquas quæ sint contingenter, ad hoc quod sit in rebus diversitas ordinata. Nihil igitur prohibet res quasdam, divina voluntate productas, necessarias esse. 3. Adhuc, Ad divinam perfectionem pertinet quod rebus creatis suam similitudinem indiderit, nisi quantum ad illa quæ repugnant ei quod est esse creatum; agentis enim perfecti est producere sibi simile, quantum possibile est. Esse autem necesse simpliciter, non repugnat ad rationem esse creati; nihil enim prohibet aliquid esse necesse, quod tamen suæ necessitatis causam habet, sicut conclusiones demonstrationum. Nihil igitur prohibet quasdam res sic esse productas a Deo ut tamen eas esse sit necesse simpliciter; imo hoc divinæ perfectioni attestatur. 4. Amplius, Quanto aliquid magis distat ab eo quod per seipsum est exsistens, scilicet Deo, tanto magis propinquum est ad non-esse; quanto autem aliquid est propinquius Deo, tanto magis recedit a non-esse. Quæ autem jam sunt, propinqua sunt ad non esse, per hoc quod habent potentiam ad non-esse. Illa igitur quæ sunt Deo propinquissima, et per hoc a non-esse remotissima, talia esse oportet, ad hoc quod sit ordo rerum completus, ut in eis non sit potentia ad non-esse. Talia autem sunt necessaria absolute. Sic igitur aliqua creata de necessitate habent esse. Sciendum est itaque quod, si rerum creatarum universitas consideretur prout sunt a primo principio, inveniuntur dependere ex voluntate, non ex necessitate principii, nisi necessitate suppositionis, ut dictum est. Si vero comparentur ad principia proxima, inveniuntur necessitatem habere absolutam; nihil enim prohibet aliqua principia non ex necessitate produci; quibus tamen positis, de necessitate sequitur talis effectus, sicut mors animalis hujus necessitatem absolutam habet, propter hoc quod jam ex contrariis est compositum, quamvis ipsum ex contrariis componi non fuisset necessarium absolute. Similiter autem quod tales rerum naturæ a Deo producerentur, voluntarium fuit; quod autem eis sic statutis aliquid proveniat vel exsistat, absolutam necessitatem habet. Diversimode autem ex diversis causis necessitas in rebus creatis est; nam, quia sine suis essentialibus principiis, quae sunt materia et forma, res esse non potest quod ex ratione principiorum essentialium rei competit, absolutam necessitatem in omnibus necesse est habere. Ex his autem principiis, secundum quod sunt essendi principia, tripliciter sumitur necessitas absoluta in rebus. Uno quidem modo, per ordinem ad esse ejus cujus sunt. Et quia materia, secundum id quod est, est ens in potentia (quod autem potest esse potest etiam et non esse), ex ordine materiæ necessario res aliquæ corruptibles exsistunt, sicut animal, quod ex contrariis compositum est, quia ejus materia contrariorum est susceptiva. Forma autem, secundum id quod est, actus est, et per eam res actu exsistunt; unde ex ipsa provenit necessitas ad esse in quibusdam. Quod contingit, vel quia res illæ sunt formæ non in materia, et sic non est in eis potentia ad non-esse, sed per suam formam semper sunt in virtute essendi, sicut est in substantiis separatis; vel quia formæ rerum sua perfectione adæquant totam potentiam materiae, ut sic non remaneat potentia ad aliam formam nec per consequens ad non esse, sicut est in corporibus cœlestibus. In quibus vero forma non complet totam materiæ potentiam, remanet adhuç materia in potentia ad aliam formam; et ideo non est in eis necessitas essendi; sed virtus essendi consequitur in eis victoriam formæ super materiam, ut patet in elementis et elementatis; forma enim elementi non attingit materiam secundum totum ejus posse, non enim fit susceptiva formæ elementi unius nisi per hoc quod subjicitur alteri parti contrarietatis: forma vero mixti attingit materiam, secundum quod disponitur per determinatum modum mixitionis. Idem autem subjectum oportet esse contrarium et mediorum omnium quæ sunt ex commixtione extremorum. Unde manifestum est quod omnia quæ vel contrarium habent vel ex contrariis sunt, corruptibilia sunt; quæ autem hujusmodi non sunt, sempiterna sunt, nisi per accidens corrumpantur, sicut formæ quæ non subsistunt, sed esse ea-rum est per hoc quod insunt materiae. Alio modo ex principiis essentialibus est in rebus absoluta necessitas, per ordinem ad partes materiæ vel formæ, si contingit hujusmodi principia in aliquibus non simplicia esse. Quia enim materia propria hominis est corpus commixtum et complexionatum et organizatum, necessarium est absolute hominem quod-libet elementorum et humorum et organorum principalium in se habere. Similiter, si homo est animal rationale et mortale, ethæc est natura vel forma hominis, necessarium est ipsum et animal rationale esse. Tertio vero est in rebus necessitas absoluta, per ordinem principiorum essentialium ad proprietates consequentes materiam et formam; sicut necesse est serram, quia ex ferro est, duram esse, et hominem disciplinæ perceptibilem esse. Necessitas vero agentis consideratur et quantum ad ipsum agere, et quantum ad effectum consequentem. -- Prima autem necessitatis consideratio similis est necessitati accidentis, quam habet ex principiis formalibus. Sicut enim alia accidentia ex necessitate principiorum essentialium procedunt, ita et actio ex necessitate formæ per quam agens est actu; sic enim agit ut actu est. Differenter tamen hoc accidit in actione quæ in ipso agente manet, sicut intelligere et velle, et in actione quæ in alterum transit, sicut calefacere. Nam in primo genere actionis, sequitur ex forma, per quam agens fit in actu, necessitas actionis ipsius; quia ad ejus esse nihil extrinsecum requiritur in quod actio terminetur. Quum enim sensus fuerit factus in actu per speciem sensibilem, necesse est ipsum sentire; et similiter, quum inlelectus est in actu per speciem intelligibilem. In secundo autem genere actionis, sequitur ex forma necessitas actionis, quantum ad virtutem agendi; si enim ignis est calidus, necessarium est ipsum habere virtutem calefaciendi; tamen non necesse est ipsum calefacere, eo quod ab extrinseco impediri potest. Nec ad propositum differt utrum agens sit unus tantum ad actionem sufficiens per suam formam, vel oporteat multos agentes ad unam actionem agendam congregari, sicut multi homines ad trahendam navim; nam omnes sunt ut unus agens, qui fit actu per adu nationem eorum ad actionem unam. Necessitas autem quæ est a causa agente vel movente in effectu vel moto, non tantum dependet a causa agente, sed etiam a conditione ipsius moti et recipientis actionem agentis, cui vel nullo modo inest potentia ad recipiendum talis actionis effectum, sicut lanæ ut ex ea fiat prora, vel est potentia impedita per contraria agentia vel per contrarias dispositiones inhærentes mobili aut formas, motore impedito, quo impeditur virtus agentis in agendo, sicut ferrum non liquefit a debili calido. Oportet igitur, ad hoc quod sequatur effectus, quod in passo sit potentia ad recipiendum, et in agente sit victoria supra passum, ut possit ipsum transmutare ad contrariam dispositionem. Et si quidem effectus consequens in passum ex victoria agentis supra ipsum fuerit contrarius naturali dispositioni patientis, erit necessitas violentiæ, sicut quum lapis projicitur sursum; si vero non fuerit contrarius naturali dispositioni ipsius subjecti, non erit necessitas violentiæ, sed ordinis naturalis, sicut est in motu cæli, qui est a primo agente extrinseco, non tamen est contra naturalem dispositionem mobilis, et ideo non est motus violentus, sed naturalis. Similiter est in alteratione corporum inferiorum a corporibus cælestibus; nam naturalis inclinatio est in corporibus inferioribus ad recipiendum impressionem corporum superiorum. Sic etiam est in generatione elementorum; nam forma inducenda per generationem non est contraria primæ materiæ quæ est generationis snbjectum, licet sit contraria formæ abjiciendæ; non enim materia, sub forma contraria existens, est generationis subjectum. Ex prædictis igitur patet quod necessitas quæ est in causa agente, in quibusdam dependet ex dispositione agentis tantum, in quibusdam vero ex dispositione agentis et patientis. Si igitur talis dispositio, secundum quam de necessitate sequitur effectus, fuerit necessaria et absoluta in agente et patiente, erit necessitas absoluta in causa agente, sicut in his quæ agunt ex necessitate et semper. Si autem non fuerit absolute necessaria, sed possibilis removeri, non erit necessitas ex causa agente, nisi ex suppositione dispositionis utriusque debitæ ad agendum; sicut in his quæ impediuntur interdum in sua operatione vel propter defectum virtutis vel propter violentiam alicujus contrarii; unde non agunt semper ex necessitate, sed ut in pluribus. Ex causa autem finali sequitur in rebus necessitas dupliciter. Uno quidem modo, prout est primum in intentione agentis; et quantum ad hoc, eodem modo est necessitas ex fine et ab agente; agens enim in tantum agit in quantum finem intendit, tam in naturalibus quam in voluntariis. In rebus autem naturalibus intentio finis competit agenti secundum suam formam, per quam finis est sibi conveniens; unde oportet quod, secundum virtutem formæ, tendat res naturalis in finem, sicut grave, secundum mensuram gravitatis, tendit ad medium. In rebus autem voluntariis, tantum voluntas inclinat ad agendum propter finem quem intendit; licet non semper tantum inclinetur ad agendum hæc vel illa quæ sunt propter finem quem appetit, quando finis non solum per hæc vel illa haberi potest, sed pluribus modis. Alio vero modo est ex fine necessitas, secundum quod est posterius in esse; et hæc necessitas non est absoluta, sed conditionata; sicut dicimus necesse fore ut serra sit ferrea, si debeat habere serræ opus.
Caput 31
[lib.2.cap.31.n.1] CHAPTER XXXI—That it is not necessary for Creatures to have existed from Eternity
IF either the entire universe or any single creature necessarily exists, this necessity must arise either from the being itself or from some other being. From the being itself it cannot arise: for every being must be from the first being; and what has not being of itself, cannot necessarily exist of itself.
But if this supposed necessity arises from another being, that is, from some extrinsic cause, then, we observe, an extrinsic cause is either efficient or final. Now an effect necessarily arising from an efficient cause means that the agent acts of necessity: when the agent does not act of necessity, neither is it absolutely necessary for the effect to arise. But God does not act under any necessity in the production of creatures (Chap. ). So far therefore as the efficient cause is concerned, there is not any absolute necessity for any creature to be. Neither is there any such necessity in connexion with the final cause. For means to an end receive necessity from their end only in so far as without them the end either cannot be at all, or cannot well be. Now the end proposed to the divine will in the production of things can be no other than God’s own goodness, as has been shown (B. I, Chap. ): which goodness depends on creatures neither for its being nor for its well-being (B. I, Chapp. , ). There is then no absolute necessity for the being of any creature: nor is it necessary to suppose creation always to have existed.
3. It is not necessary for God to will creation to be at all (B. I, Chap. ): therefore it is not necessary for God to will creation always to have been.
[lib.2.cap.31.n.1] Quod non est necessarium creaturas fuisse ab æterno. Ex præmissis autem restat ostendere quod non est necessarium res creatas ab æterno fuisse. 4. Si enim universitatem creaturarum vel quamcumque unam creaturam necesse est esse, oportet quod necessitatem istam habeat ex se vel ex alio. Ex se quidem eam habere non potest. Ostensum est enim supra (c. xv) quod omne ens oportet esse a primo ente. Quod autem non habet esse a se, impossibile est quod necessitatem essendi a se habeat; quia quod necesse est esse, impossibile est non esse; et sic quod de se habet quod sit necesse esse, de se habet quod non possit esse non-ens, et per consequens quod non sit non-ens, et ita quod sit ens. Si autem hæc necessitas creaturæ est ab alio, oportet quod sit ab aliqua causa quæ sit extrinseca; quia, quidquid accipiatur intrinsecum creaturæ, habet esse ab alio. Causa autem extrinseca est vel efficiens vel finis. Ex efficiente vero sequitur quod effectum necesse sit esse, per quod agentem necesse est agere; per actionem enim agentis effectus a causa efficiente dependet. Si igitur agentem non necesse sit agere ad productionem effectus, nec effectum necesse est esse absolute. Deus autem non agit ex aliqua necessitate ad creaturarum productionem, ut supra (c. xxiii) ostensum est. Non est igitur absolute necesse creaturam esse, necessitate dependente a causa efficiente. Similiter, nec necessitate dependente a causa finali. Ea enim quæ sunt ad finem, necessitatem a fine non recipiunt, nisi secundum quod finis sine eis vel non potest esse, sicut conservatio vitæ sine cibo, vel non ita bene esse, sicut iter sine equo. Finis autem divinæ voluntatis, ex qua res in esse processorunt, non potest aliud esse quam sua bonitas, ut in primo ostensum est; quæ quidem a creaturis non dependet nec quantum ad esse, quum sit per se necesse esse, nec quantum ad bene esse, quum sit secundum se perfecta simpliciter; quæ omnia supra (c. xxiii et xxviii) ostensa sunt. Non est igitur creaturam esse absolute necessarium; nec igitur necessarium est ponere creaturam semper fuisse. 2. Adhuc, Quod est ex voluntate non est absolute necessarium, nisi forte quando voluntatem hoc velle est necessarium. Deus autem, non per necessitatem naturæ, sed per voluntatem, producit creaturas in esse, ut probatum est (c. xxiii); nec necessitate vult creaturas esse, ut in primo ostensum est (l. I, c. lxxxi). Non igitur est absolute necessarium creaturas esse, neque ergo necessarium est eas semper fuisse. 3. Amplius, Ostensum est supra (c. xxiii) quod Deus non agit aliqua actione quæ sit extra ipsum quasi ab ipso exiens et in creaturam terminata, sicut calefactio exit ab igne et terminatur in ligna; sed ejus velle est ejus agere; et hoc modo sunt res secundum quod Deus vult eas esse. Sed necessarium non est quod Deus velit creaturam semper fuisse, quum etiam non sit necessarium Deum velle quod creatura sit omnino, ut in primo ostensum est (c. lxxxi ). Non igitur est necessarium quod creatura semper fuerit. 4. Item, Ab agente per voluntatem non procedit aliquid ex necessitate nisi per rationem alicujus debiti. Ex nullo autem debito Deus creaturam producit, si absolute universalis creaturæ productio consideretur, ut supra (c. xxviii) ostensum est. Non igitur ex necessitate Deus creaturam producit. Nec igitur necessarium est, si Deus sempiternus sit, quod creaturam ab æterno produxerit. 5. Præterea, Ostensum est supra (c. xxix-xxx) quod absoluta necessitas in rebus creatis non est per ordinem ad primum principium quod per se necesse est esse, scilicet Deum, sed per ordinem ad alias causas quæ non sunt per se necessariæ causæ. Necessitas autem ordinis ad id quod non est per se necesse esse, non cogit aliquid semper fuisse: sequitur enim, si aliquid currit, quod moveatur; non tamen necesse est quod semper motum fuerit, quia ipsum currere non est per se necessarium. Nihil ergo cogit creaturas semper fuisse.
Caput 32
[lib.2.cap.32.n.1] CHAPTER XXXII, XXXV—Reasons alleged for the Eternity of the World on the part of God, with Answers to the same
ARG. 1. Every agent that is not always in action, suffers some change when it comes to act. But God suffers no change, but is ever in act in the same way; and from His action created things come to be: therefore they always have been.
Reply (Chap. ). There is no need of God suffering any change for fresh effects of His power coming to be. Novelty of effect can only indicate change in the agent in so far as it shows novelty of action. Any new action in the agent implies some change in the same, at least a change from rest to activity. But a fresh effect of God’s power does not indicate any new action in God, since His action is His essence (B. I, Chap. ).
The action of God is eternal: therefore the things created by God have been from eternity.
Reply. That does not follow. For, as shown above (Chap. ), though God acts voluntarily in creation, yet it does not follow that there need be any action on His part intermediate between the act of His will and the effect of the same, as in us the action of our motor activities is so intermediate. With God to understand and will is to produce; and the effect produced follows
upon the understanding and will according to the determination of the understanding and the command of the will. But as by the understanding there is determined the production of the thing, and its every other condition, so there is also prescribed for it the time at which it is to be; just as any art determines not only that a thing be of this or that character, but also that it be at this or that time, as the physician fixes the time for giving the medicine. Thus, assuming God’s will to be of itself effectual for the production of an effect, the effect would follow fresh from the ancient will, without any fresh action coming to be put forth on the part of God.
Arg. 3. Given a sufficient cause, the effect will ensue: otherwise it would be possible, when the cause was posited, for the effect either to be or not to be. At that rate, the sequence of effect upon cause would be possible and no more. But what is possible requires something to reduce it to act: we should have therefore to suppose a cause whereby the effect was reduced to act, and thus the first cause would not be sufficient. But God is the sufficient cause of the production of creatures: otherwise He must be in potentiality, and become a cause by some addition, which is clearly absurd.
Reply. Though God is the sufficient cause of the production and bringing forth of creatures into being, yet the effect of His production need not be taken to be eternal. For, given a sufficient cause, there follows its effect, but not an effect alien from the cause. Now the proper effect of the will is that that should be which the will wants. If it were anything else than what the will wanted, not the proper effect of the cause would be secured, but a foreign effect. Now as the will wishes that this should be of this or that nature, so it also wishes that it should be at this or that time. Hence, for will to be a sufficient cause, it is requisite that the effect should be when the will wishes it to be. The case is otherwise with physical agencies: they cannot wait: physical action takes place according as nature is ready for it: there the effect must follow at once upon the complete being of the cause. But the will does not act according to the mode of its being, but according to the mode of its purpose; and therefore, as the effect of a physical agent follows the being of the agent, if it is sufficient, so the effect of a voluntary agent follows the mode of purpose.
Arg. 4. A voluntary agent does not delay the execution of his purpose except in expectation of some future condition not yet realised. And this unfulfilled futurity is sometimes in the agent himself, as when maturity of active power or the removal of some hindrance is the condition expected: sometimes it is without the agent, as when there is expected the presence of some one before whom the action is to take place, or the arrival of some opportune time that is not yet come. A complete volition is at once carried into effect by the executive power, except for some defect in that power. Thus at the command of the will a limb is at once moved, unless there be some break-down in the motor apparatus. Therefore, when any one wishes to do a thing and it is not at once done, that must be either for some defect of power, the removal of which has to be waited for, or because of the incompleteness of the volition to do the thing. I call it ‘completeness of volition,’ when there is a will absolutely to do the thing, anyhow. The volition I say is ‘incomplete,’ when there is no will absolutely to do the thing, but the will is conditioned on the existence of some circumstance not yet present, or the withdrawal of some present impediment. But certainly, whatever God now wills to be, He
has from eternity willed to be. No new motion of the will can come upon Him: no defect or impediment can have clogged His power: there can have been nothing outside Himself for Him to wait for in the production of the universe, since there is nothing else uncreated save Him alone (Chapp. , ). It seems therefore necessary that God must have brought the creature into being from all eternity.
Reply. The object of the divine will is not the mere being of the creature, but its being at a certain time. What is thus willed, namely, the being of the creature at that time, is not delayed: because the creature began to exist then exactly when God from eternity arranged that it should begin to exist.
Arg. 5. An intellectual agent does not prefer one alternative to another except for some superiority of the one over the other. But where there is no difference, there can be no superiority. But between one non-existence and another non-existence there can be no difference, nor is one non-existence preferable to another. But, looking beyond the entire universe, we find nothing but the eternity of God. Now in nothing there can be assigned no difference of instants, that a thing should be done in one instant rather than in another. In like manner neither in eternity, which is all uniform and simple (B. I, Chap. ), can there be any difference of instants. It follows that the will of God holds itself in one unvarying attitude to the production of creatures throughout the whole of eternity. Either therefore His will is that creation never be realised at all under His eternity, or that it always be realised.
Reply. It is impossible to mark any difference of parts of any duration antecedent to the beginning of all creation, as the fifth objection supposed that we could do. For nothingness has neither measure nor duration, and the eternity of God has no parts, no before and no after. We cannot therefore refer the beginning of all creation to any severally marked points in any pre-existing measure. There are no such points for the beginning of creation to be referred to according to any relation of agreement or divergence. Hence it is impossible to demand any reason in the mind of the agent why he should have brought the creature into being in this particular marked instant of
duration rather than in that other instant preceding or following. God brought into being creation and time simultaneously. There is no account to be taken therefore why He produced the creature now, and not before, but only why the creature has not always been. There is an analogy in the case of place: for particular bodies are produced in a particular time and also in a particular place; and, because they have about them a time and a place within which they are contained, there must be a reason assignable why they are produced in this place and this time rather than in any other: but in regard of the whole stellar universe (coelum), beyond which there is no place, and along with which the universal place of all things is produced, no account is to be taken why it is situated here and not there. In like manner in the production of the whole creation, beyond which there is no time, and simultaneously with which time is produced, no question is to be raised why it is now and not before, but only why it has not always been, or why it has come to be after not being, or why it had any beginning.
Arg. 6. Means to the end have their necessity from the end, especially in voluntary actions. So long then as the end is uniform, the means to the end must be uniform or uniformly produced, unless they come to stand in some new relation to the end. Now the end of creatures proceeding from the divine will is the divine goodness, which alone can be the end in view of the divine will. Since then the divine goodness is uniform for all eternity, alike in itself and in comparison with the divine will, it seems that creatures must be uniformly brought into being by the divine will for all eternity. It cannot be said that any new relation to the end supervenes upon them, so long as the position is clung to that they had no being at all before a certain fixed time, at which they are supposed to have begun to be.
Reply. Though the end of the divine will can be none other than the divine goodness, still the divine will has not to work to bring this goodness into being, in the way that the artist works to set up the product of his art, since the divine goodness is eternal and unchangeable and incapable of addition. Nor does God work for His goodness as for an end to be won for Himself, as a king works to win a city: for God is His own goodness. He works for this end, only inasmuch as He produces an effect which is to share in the end. In such a production of things for an end, the uniform attitude of end to agent is not to be considered reason enough for an everlasting work. Rather we should consider the bearing of the end on the effect produced to serve it. The one evinced necessity is that of the production of the effect in the manner better calculated to serve the end for which it is produced.
Arg. 7. Since all things, so far as they have being, share in the goodness of God; the longer they exist, the more they share of that goodness: hence also the perpetual being of the species is said to be divine. But the divine
goodness is infinite. Therefore it is proper to it to communicate itself infinitely, and not for a fixed time only.
Reply. It was proper for the creature, in such likeness as became it, to represent the divine goodness. Such representation cannot be by way of equality: it can only be in such way as the higher and greater is represented by the lower and less. Now the excess of the divine goodness above the creature is best expressed by this, that creatures have not always been in existence: for thereby it appears that all other beings but God Himself have God for the author of their being; and that His power is not tied to producing effects of one particular character, as physical nature produces physical effects, but that He is a voluntary and intelligent agent.
[lib.2.cap.32.n.1] Rationes probare volentium æternitatem mundi, ex parte Dei acceptæ. Sed quia multorum positio fuit quod mundus semper et ex necessitate fuerit, et hoc demonstrare conati sunt, restat rationes eorum ponere, ut ostendatur quod non de necessitate concludunt mundi sempiternitatem. Primo autem ponentur rationes quæ sumuntur ex parte Dei; Secundo, quæ sumuntur ex parte creaturæ (infra, c. xxxiii); Tertio, quæ sumuntur a modo factionis rerum, secundum quem ponuntur de novo incipere esse (xxxiv). Ex parte autem Dei, ad aternitatem mundi ostendendam, sumuntur rationes hujusmodi. 4. Omne agens quod non semper agit movetur per se vel per accidens: per se quidem, sicut ignis, qui non semper comburebat, incipit comburere, vel quia de novo ascenditur, vel quia de novo transfertur ut sit propinquum combustibili; per accidens autem, sicut motor animalis incipit de novo movere animal, aliquo novo motu facto circa ipsum, vel ex interiori, sicut quum animal exergiscitur, digestione completa, et incipit moveri, vel ab exteriori, sicut quum de novo veniunt actiones inducentes ad aliquam actionem de novo inchoandam. Deus autem non movetur neque per se neque per accidens, ut in primo probatum est (l. I, c. xiii). Deus igitur semper eodem modo agit. Ex sua autem actione res creatæ in esse consistunt. Semper igitur creaturæ fuerunt. 2. Adhuc, Effectus procedit a causa agente per actionem ejus. Sed actio Dei est aterna; alias fieret, de potentia agente, actu agens, et oporteret quod reduceretur in actum ab aliquo priori agente actu, quod est impossibile. Ergo res a Deo creatæ ab aterno fuerunt. 3. Amplius, Posita causa sufficienti, necesse est effectum poni. Si enim adhuc, posita causa, non necesse est effectum poni, possibile igitur erit, causa posita, effectum esse et non esse; consecutio igitur effectus ad causam erit possibilis tantum; quod autem est possibile, indiget aliquo 1 si reducatur in actum; oportebit igitur ponere aliquam esse causam qua fiat ut effectus reducatur in actum, et sic prima causa non erat sufficiens. Sed Deus est causa sufficiens productionis creaturarum; alias non esset causa, sed magis in potentia se ad causam haberet; aliquo enim addito, fieret causa; quod patet esse impossibile. Videtur igitur necessarium quod, quum Deus ab aterno fuerit, creatura etiam fuerit ab aterno. 4. Item, Agens per voluntatem, non retardat suum propositum exsequi de aliquo faciendo, nisi propter aliquid in futurum expectatum quod nondum adest. Et hoc quando est in ipso agente, sicut quum expectatur perfectio virtutis ad agendum aut sublatio alicujus impedien-tis virtutem; quando vero est extra agentem, sicut quum expectatur præ-sentia alicujus coram quo actio fiat, vel saltem quum expectatur præ-sentia alicujus temporis opportuni quod nondum adest. Si enim voluntas sit completa, statim potentia exsequitur, nisi sit defectus in ipsa; sicut ad imperium voluntatis statim sequitur motus membri, nisi sit defectus potentiæ motivæ exsequentis motum; et per hoc patet quod, quum aliquis vult aliquid facere et non statim fiat, oportet quod vel hoc sit propter defectum potentiæ, qui expectatur removendus, vel quia voluntas non est completa ad hoc faciendum. Dico autem complementum voluntatis esse, quando vult hoc absolute facere omnibus modis; voluntas autem incompleta est, quando aliquis non vult facere hoc absolute, sed existente aliqua conditione quæ nondum adest, vel nisi subtracto impedimento quod adest. Constat autem quod quidquid Deus nunc vult quod sit, ab aterno voluit quod sit; non enim novus motus voluntatis ei advenire potest, nec aliquis defectus vel impedimentum potentiæ ejus adesse potuit, nec 2 aliquid aliud expectari potuit ad universalis creaturæ productionem, quum nihil aliud sit increatum nisi Ipse solus, ut supra (c. v1 et xv) ostensum est. Necessarium igitur videtur quod ab aterno creaturam in esse produxerit. 5. Præterea, Agens per intellectum non præeligit unum alteri nisi propter præeminentiam unius ad alterum. Sed ubi nulla est differentia, non potest esse præeminentia. Ubi igitur nulla est differentia, non fit præelectio unius ad alterum; et propter hoc, ab agente ad utrum-libet se habente aqualiter nulla erit actio, sicut nec a materia; talis enim potentia assimilatur potentiæ materiæ. Non-entis autem ad non-ens nulla potest esse differentia. Unum igitur non-ens non est alteri præeligibile. Sed præter totam creaturum universitatem nihil est nisi aternitas Dei; in nihilo autem non possunt assignari differentia aliquæ momentorum, ut in uno magis oporteat aliquid fieri quam in alio; similiter nec in aternitate, quæ tota est uniformis et simplicier, ut in primo ostensum est (l. I, c. xv). 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it, it, un, t, act, act, act, act, act, it, en, act, it, ed, ed, en, it, ed, en, it, ed, it, it, en, ed, ed, en, act, act, ed, act, act, en, act, act, act, act, en, en, en, en, act, act, act, act, act, act, en, en, act, act, act, act, act, en, en, en, act, act, act, en, en, act, en, en, act, it, it, it, en, it, ed, it, act, act, act, en, en, act, ed, act, t, ed, ed, act, ut, ut, act, act, act, act, t, it, it, it, ed, ed, ed, ed, ed, ed, it, ut, it, ed, ed, it, it, act, act, it, it, act, en, ed, ed, it, act, act, un, it, en, en, act, act, act, act, act, act, act, en, act, act, act, act, act, en, ed, un, ed, ed, un, it, ed, it, it, act, act, ed, ed, en, it, act, act, act, act, act, en, act, un, it, act, ed, act, ed, en, en, en, ut, ut, act, en, ed, ram per totam aternitatem. Aut igitur voluntas sua est de hoc quod nunquam creatura sub aternitate ejus constituatur, aut quod semper. Constat autem quod non est voluntas ejus de hoc quod nunquam creatura sub ejus esse aterno constituatur, quum pateat creaturas voluntate ejus esse institutas. Relinquitur igitur de necessitate, ut videtur, quod creatura semper fuit. 6. Adhuc, Ea quae sunt ad finem necessitatem habent ex fine, et maxime in his quae voluntate aguntur. Oportet igitur quod, fine eodem modo se habente, ea quae sunt ad finem eodem modo se habeant vel producantur, nisi adveniat nova habitudo eorum ad finem. Finis autem creaturarum ex divina voluntate procedentium est divina bonitas, quae sola potest esse divinæ voluntatis finis. Quum igitur divina bonitas in tota aternitate eodem modo se habeat in se et in comparatione ad divinam voluntatem, videtur quod eodem modo creaturæ in esse producuntur a divina voluntate in tota aternitate; non enim potest dici quod aliqua nova relatio eis advenerit ad finem, si penitus ponatur non fuisse ante aliquod determinatum tempus a quo incepisse ponuntur. 7. Adhuc, Quum bonitas divina perfectissima sit, non hoc modo dicitur quod omnia a Deo processerunt propter bonitatem ejus ut ei aliquid ex creaturis accresceret, sed quia bonitatis est ut seipsam communicet prout possibile est, in quo bonitas manifestatur. Quum autem omnia bonitatem Dei participent in quantum habent esse, secundum quod diurniora sunt magis bonitatem Dei participant; unde et esse perpetuum speciei dicitur divinum esse. Bonitas autem divina infinita est. Ejus igitur est ut se in infinitum communicet, non aliquo determinato tempore tantum. Hoc igitur videtur ad divinam bonitatem pertinere ut creaturæ aliquæ ab aterno fuerint. Hæc igitur sunt ex parte Dei accepta, per quæ videtur quod creaturæ semper fuerint.
Caput 33
[lib.2.cap.33.n.1] CHAPTERS XXXIII, XXXVI—Reasons alleged for the Eternity of the World on the part Creatures, with answers to the same
ARG. 1. There are creatures in which there is no potentiality of not being (see Chap. ): it is impossible for them not to be, and therefore they always must be.
Reply (Chap. ). The necessity of such creatures being is only a relative necessity, as shown above (Chap. ): it does not involve the creature’s always having been: it does not follow upon its substance: but when the creature is already established in being, this necessity involves the impossibility of its not-being.
Arg. 3. Every change must either go on everlastingly, or have some other change preceding it. But change always has been: therefore also changeable things: therefore creatures.
Reply. It has already been shown (Chapp. , ) that without any change in God, the agent, He may act to the production of a new thing, that has not always been. But if a new thing may be produced by Him, He may also originate a process of change.
Arg. 5. If time is perpetual, motion must be perpetual, time being the ‘record of motion.’ But time must be perpetual: for time is inconceivable without a present instant, as a line is inconceivable without a point: now a present instant is always inconceivable without the ending of a past and the beginning of a future instant; and thus every given present instant has
before it a time preceding and after it a time succeeding, and so there can be no first or last time. It follows that created substances in motion have been from eternity.
Reply. This argument rather supposes than proves the eternity of motion. The reason why the same instant is the beginning of the future and the end of the past is because any given phase of motion is the beginning and end of different phases. There is no showing that every instant must be of this character, unless it be assumed that every given phase of time comes between motion going before and motion following after, which is tantamount to assuming the perpetuity of motion. Assuming on the contrary that motion is not perpetual, one may say that the first instant of time is the beginning of the future, and not the end of any past instant. Even in any particular case of motion we may mark a phase which is the beginning only of movement and not the end of any: otherwise every particular case of motion would be perpetual, which is impossible.
Arg. 6. If time has not always been, we may mark a non-existence of time prior to its being. In like manner, if it is not always to be, we may mark a non-existence of it subsequent to its being. But priority and subsequence in point of duration cannot be unless time is; and at that rate time must have been before it was, and shall be after it has ceased, which is absurd. Time then must be eternal. But time is an accident, and cannot be without a subject. But the subject of it is not God, who is above time and beyond motion (B. I, Chapp. , ). The only alternative left is that some created substance must be eternal.
Reply. There is nothing in this argument to evince that the very supposition of time not being supposes that time is (read, Si ponitur tempus non esse, ponatur esse). For when we speak of something prior to the being of time, we do not thereby assert any real part of time, but only an imaginary part. When we say, ‘Time has being after not being’, we mean that there was no instant of time before this present marked instant: as when we say that there is nothing above the stellar universe, we do not mean that there is any place beyond the stellar universe, which may be spoken of as ‘above’ it, but that above it there is no ‘place’ at all.
[lib.2.cap.33.n.1] Rationes ex parte creaturarum sumptæ. Sunt autem et alia ex parte creaturarum accepta, quæ idem ostendere videntur. 1. Quæ enim non habent potentiam ad non-esse, impossibile est ea non esse. Quædam autem sunt in creaturis in quibus non est potentia ad non-esse, non enim potest esse potentia ad non-esse nisi in illis quæ habent materiam contrarietati subjectam; potentia enim ad esse et non-esse est potentia ad privationem et formam, quorum subjectum est materia; privatio vero semper adjungitur formæ contrariæ, quum impossibile sit materiam esse absque omni forma. Sed quædam creaturæ sunt, in quibus non est materia contrarietati subjecta, vel quia omnino non habent materiam, sicut substantia intellectuales, ut infra (c. L) ostendetur; vel quia non habent contrarium, sicut corpora cælestia, quod eorum motus ostendit, qui contrarium non habet. Quasdam igitur creaturas impossibile est non esse; ergo eas necesse est semper esse. 2. Item, unaquæque res tantum durat in esse quanta est sua virtus essendi, nisi per accidens, sicut in his quæ violenter corrumpuntur. Sed quædam creaturæ sunt, quibus inest virtus essendi non ad aliquod determinatum tempus, sed ad semper essendum, sicut corpora cælestia et intellectuales substantia; incorruptibilia enim sunt, quum contrarium non habeant. Relinquitur igitur quod eis competit semper esse. Quod autem incipit esse non semper est. Eis ergo non competit ut esse incipient. 3. Adhuc, Quandocumque aliquid de novo incipit moveri, oportet quod movens vel motum vel utrumque aliter se habeat nunc quando est motus, quam prius quando non erat motus; est enim habitudo vel relatio quædam moventis ad motum, secundum quod est movens actu; relatio autem nova non incipit sine mutatione utriusque vel alterius saltem extremorum. Quod autem se aliter habet, K, L, M, N. — Alia manus in G scripsit: « Non. » « Tempus incepit esse, si quæratur autem quando, dicendum per mutationem subitam, quod in nunc, quod est principium temporis; nec sequitur, si tempus non habet esse in nunc, quod non inceperit esse in nunc, quia successiva non habent esse in suo principio. Similiter dicendum de motu, creatum fuit enim mobile subito et in nunc. Et neutrum quievit, sed utrumque latum est; et mobile fecit motum, et nunc tempus. Arguitur sic: omne praeteritum pracessit futurum, et omne praesens sequitur praeteritum, quia de nunc quam prius, movetur. Ergo oportet, ante motum qui de novo incipit, alium motum præcedere in mobili vel in movente. Oportet igitur quod quilibet motus vel sit æternus vel habeat alium motum ante se. Motus igitur semper fuit; ergo et mobilia; et sic creaturæ semper fuerunt; Deus enim omnino immobilis est, ut ostensum est (l. I, c. xiii). 4. Præterea, Omne agens quod generat sibi simile intendit conservare esse perpetuum in specie quod non potest conservari in individuo. Impossibile est autem naturæ appetitum vanum esse. Oportet igitur quod rerum generabilium species sint perpetuæ. 5. Adhuc, Si tempus est perpetuum, oportet motum esse perpetuum quum sit numerus motus, et per consequens mobilia esse perpetua, quum motus sit actus mobilis. Sed tempus oportet esse perpetuum; non enim potest intelligi esse tempus quin sit nunc, sicut linea non potest intelligi sine puncto; nunc autem semper est finis præteriti et principium futuri, hæc enim est diffinitio ipsius nunc; et sic quodlibet nunc datum habet ante se tempus prius et posterius, et ita nulum potest esse primum neque ultimum. Relinquitur igitur quod mobilia, quæ sunt substantia creatæ, sint ab æterno. 6. Item, Omne oportet vel affirmare vel negare. Si igitur ad negationem alicujus sequitur ejus positio, oportet illud esse semper. Tempus autem est hujusmodi; nam, si tempus non semper fuit, est accipere prius non-esse ipsius quam esse; et similiter, si non semper sit futurum, oportet quod non-esse ejus sit posterius ad esse ejus. Prius autem et posterius non potest esse secundum durationem, nisi tempus sit; nam numerus prioris et posterioris tempus est; et sic oportebit tempus fuisse antequam incipheret, et futurum esse postquam desinat. Oportet igitur tempus esse æternum. Tempus autem est accidens, quod sine subjecto esse non potest; subjectum autem ejus non est Deus, qui est supra tempus, quum sit omnino immobilis, ut in primo probatum est (l. I, c. xiii, et xv). Relinquitur igitur aliquam substantiam creatam esse æternam. 7. Amplius, Multæ propositiones sic se habent quod qui eas negat oportet quod eas ponat, sicut qui negat veritatem esse ponit veritatem esse; ponit enim suam negativam esse veram quam profert; et simile est de eo qui negat hoc principium: Contradictionem non esse simul veram; negans enim hoc dicit negationem quam ponit esse veram, oppositam autem affirmationem falsam, et sic non de eodem utrumque verificari. Si igitur id, ad cujus remotionem sequitur sua positio, oportet esse semper, ut probatum est, sequitur quod prædictæ propositiones et omnes quæ ex his sequuntur sint sempiternæ. Hæ autem propositiones non sunt Deus. Ergo aliquid oportet præter Deum esse æternum. Hæ igitur et hujusmodi rationes sumi possunt ex parte creaturarum, quod creaturæ fuerunt semper.
Caput 34
[lib.2.cap.34.n.1] CHAPTER XXXIV, XXXVII—Reasons alleged for the Eternity of the World on the part of the Creative Process itself, with Answers to the same
ARG. 1. It is the common opinion of all philosophers, and therefore it must be true, that nothing is made of nothing (Aristotle, Physics, B. I, Chapp. , ). Whatever is made, then, must be made of something; and that again, if it is made at all, must be made of something else. But this process cannot go on to infinity; and therefore we must come to something that was not made. But every being that has not always been must have been made. Therefore that out of which all things are first made must be something everlasting. That cannot be God, because He cannot be
the material of anything. Therefore there must be something eternal outside God, namely, primordial matter.
Reply (Chap. ). The common position of philosophers, that nothing is made of nothing, is true of the sort of making that they considered. For all our knowledge begins in sense, which is of singular objects; and human investigation has advanced from particular to general considerations. Hence, in studying the beginning of things, men gave their attention to the making of particular things in detail. The making of one sort of being out of another sort is the making of some particular being, inasmuch as it is ‘this being,’ not as it is ‘being’ generally: for some prior being there was that now is changed into ‘this being.’ But entering more deeply into the origin of things, philosophers came finally to consider the issuing of all created being from one first cause (Chapp. , ). In this origin of all created being from God, it is impossible to allow any making out of pre-existent material: for such making out of pre-existent material would not be a making of the whole being of the creature. This first making of the universe was not attained to in the thought of the early physicists, whose common opinion it was that nothing was made of nothing: or if any did attain to it, they considered that such a term as ‘making’ did not properly apply to it, since the name ‘making’ implies movement or change, whereas in this origin of all being from one first being there can be no question of the transmutation of one being into another (Chap. ). Therefore it is not the concern of physical science to study this first origin of all things: that study belongs to the metaphysician, who deals with being in general and realities apart from motion. We may however by a figure of speech apply the name of ‘making’ to creation, and speak of things as ‘made,’ whatsoever they are, the essence or nature whereof has its origin from other being.
Arg. 2. Everything that takes a new being is now otherwise than as it was before: that must come about by some movement or change: but all movement or change is in some subject: therefore before anything is made there must be some subject of motion.
Reply. The notion of motion or change is foisted in here to no purpose: for what nowise is, is not anywise, and affords no hold for the conclusion that, when it begins to be, it is otherwise than as it was before.
These then are the reasons which some hold to as demonstrative, and necessarily evincing that creatures have always existed, wherein they contradict the Catholic faith, which teaches that nothing but God has always existed, and that all else has had a beginning of being except the one eternal God. Thus then it evidently appears that there is nothing to traverse our assertion, that the world has not always existed. And this the Catholic faith teaches: In the beginning God created heaven and earth (Gen. i, 1): and, Before he made anything, from the beginning (Prov. viii, 22).
[lib.2.cap.34.n.1] Rationes sumptæ ex parte factionis. Possunt autem sumi aliærationes ex parte ipsius factionis, ad idem ostendendum. 1. Quod enim ab omnibus communiter dicitur, impossibile est totaliter esse falsum; falsa enim opinio infirmitas quædam intellectus est, sicut et falsum judicium de sensibili proprio ex infirmitate sensus accidit. Defectus autem per accidens sunt, quia præter naturæ intentionem; quod autem est per accidens, non potest esse semper et in omnibus; sicut judicium de saporibus, quod ab omni gustu datur, non potest esse falsum, ita judicium, quod ab omnibus de veritate datur, non potest esse erroneum. Communis autem sententia est omnium philosophorum, ex nihilo nihil fieri, Arist. Physic. I, c. vii et viii. Oportet igitur esse verum. Si igitur aliquid quolibet præterito prius erat verum dicere ipsum esse futurum; sed omne tempus quod processit, est præteritum; ergo ante omne tempus fuit tempus; ergo tempus est infinitum a parte ante et finitum a parte post. Dicendum quod si præteritum et futurum dicunt differentias temporis, falsum est quod similiter omne præteritum processit futurum. Cum ergo dicitur quod de quolibet præterito prius fuit verum dicere prius esse futurum, futurum non dicit differentiam temporis, sed ordinationem æterni ad temporale, similiter præteritum æternitas antecedit, et sequitur omne tempus in infinitum. » (Ex cod. G. de F.) 1, J, et etiam cod. Bergom. est factum, oportet ex aliquo esse factum; quod si etiam factum sit, oportet etiam et hoc ex alio fieri. Non potest autem hoc in infinitum procedere, quia sic nulla generatio compleretur, quum non sit possibile infinita transire. Oportet igitur devenire ad aliquod primum quod non sit factum. Omne autem ens quod non semper fuit, oportet esse factum. Ergo oportet illud ex quo omnia primo fiunt, esse sempiternum. Hoc autem non est Deus, quia ipse non potest esse materia alicujus rei, ut in primo probatum est (l. I, c. xvii). Relinquitur igitur quod aliquid extra Deum sit æternum, scilicet materia prima. 2. Amplius, Si aliquid non se habet eodem modo nunc et prius, oportet illud esse aliqualiter mutatum; hoc enim est moveri, non eodem modo se nunc et prius habere. Omne autem quod de novo incipit esse, non eodem modo se habet nunc et prius. Oportet igitur hoc per aliquem motum vel mutationem accidere. Omnis autem motus vel mutatio in aliquo subjecto est; est enim actus mobilis. Quum autem motus sit prius eo quod fit per motum (quum ad hoc terminetur motus), oportet ante quodlibet factum præexsistere aliquod subjectum mobile; et quum hoc non sit possibile in infinitum procedere, oportet devenire ad aliquod primum subjectum non de novo incipiens, sed semper exsistens. 3. Adhuc, Omne quod de novo esse incipit, antequam esset, possibile erat ipsum esse; si enim possibile non erat ipsum esse necesse erat non esse; et sic semper fuisset non ens, et numquam esse incepisset. Sed quod est possibile esse, est subjectum potentia ens. Oportet igitur, ante quodlibet de novo incipiens, præexsistere subjectum potentia ens; et quum hoc in infinitum procedere non possit, oportet ponere aliquod primum subjectum quod non inceperit esse de novo. 4. Item, Nulla substantia permanens est, dum fit; ad hoc enim fit ut sit; non enim fieret, si jam esset. Sed dum fit, oportet aliquid esse quod sit factionis subjectum; non enim factio, quum sit accidens, sine subjecto esse potest. Omne igitur quod fit habet aliquod subjectum præexsistens; et quum hoc in infinitum ire non possit, sequitur primum subjectum non esse factum, sed sempiternum; ex quo ulterius sequitur aliquid præter Deum esse æternum, quum ipse subjectum factionis aut motus esse non possit. Hæ igitur sunt rationes quibus aliqui, tanquam demonstrationibus inhærentes, dicunt necessarium esse res creatas semper fuisse; in quo fidei catholicæ contradicunt, quæ ponit nihil præter Deum semper fuisse, sed omnia esse cæpisse præter unum Deum æternum.
Caput 35
[lib.2.cap.35.n.1] CHAPTER XXXII, XXXV—Reasons alleged for the Eternity of the World on the part of God, with Answers to the same
ARG. 1. Every agent that is not always in action, suffers some change when it comes to act. But God suffers no change, but is ever in act in the same way; and from His action created things come to be: therefore they always have been.
Reply (Chap. ). There is no need of God suffering any change for fresh effects of His power coming to be. Novelty of effect can only indicate change in the agent in so far as it shows novelty of action. Any new action in the agent implies some change in the same, at least a change from rest to activity. But a fresh effect of God’s power does not indicate any new action in God, since His action is His essence (B. I, Chap. ).
The action of God is eternal: therefore the things created by God have been from eternity.
Reply. That does not follow. For, as shown above (Chap. ), though God acts voluntarily in creation, yet it does not follow that there need be any action on His part intermediate between the act of His will and the effect of the same, as in us the action of our motor activities is so intermediate. With God to understand and will is to produce; and the effect produced follows
upon the understanding and will according to the determination of the understanding and the command of the will. But as by the understanding there is determined the production of the thing, and its every other condition, so there is also prescribed for it the time at which it is to be; just as any art determines not only that a thing be of this or that character, but also that it be at this or that time, as the physician fixes the time for giving the medicine. Thus, assuming God’s will to be of itself effectual for the production of an effect, the effect would follow fresh from the ancient will, without any fresh action coming to be put forth on the part of God.
Arg. 3. Given a sufficient cause, the effect will ensue: otherwise it would be possible, when the cause was posited, for the effect either to be or not to be. At that rate, the sequence of effect upon cause would be possible and no more. But what is possible requires something to reduce it to act: we should have therefore to suppose a cause whereby the effect was reduced to act, and thus the first cause would not be sufficient. But God is the sufficient cause of the production of creatures: otherwise He must be in potentiality, and become a cause by some addition, which is clearly absurd.
Reply. Though God is the sufficient cause of the production and bringing forth of creatures into being, yet the effect of His production need not be taken to be eternal. For, given a sufficient cause, there follows its effect, but not an effect alien from the cause. Now the proper effect of the will is that that should be which the will wants. If it were anything else than what the will wanted, not the proper effect of the cause would be secured, but a foreign effect. Now as the will wishes that this should be of this or that nature, so it also wishes that it should be at this or that time. Hence, for will to be a sufficient cause, it is requisite that the effect should be when the will wishes it to be. The case is otherwise with physical agencies: they cannot wait: physical action takes place according as nature is ready for it: there the effect must follow at once upon the complete being of the cause. But the will does not act according to the mode of its being, but according to the mode of its purpose; and therefore, as the effect of a physical agent follows the being of the agent, if it is sufficient, so the effect of a voluntary agent follows the mode of purpose.
Arg. 4. A voluntary agent does not delay the execution of his purpose except in expectation of some future condition not yet realised. And this unfulfilled futurity is sometimes in the agent himself, as when maturity of active power or the removal of some hindrance is the condition expected: sometimes it is without the agent, as when there is expected the presence of some one before whom the action is to take place, or the arrival of some opportune time that is not yet come. A complete volition is at once carried into effect by the executive power, except for some defect in that power. Thus at the command of the will a limb is at once moved, unless there be some break-down in the motor apparatus. Therefore, when any one wishes to do a thing and it is not at once done, that must be either for some defect of power, the removal of which has to be waited for, or because of the incompleteness of the volition to do the thing. I call it ‘completeness of volition,’ when there is a will absolutely to do the thing, anyhow. The volition I say is ‘incomplete,’ when there is no will absolutely to do the thing, but the will is conditioned on the existence of some circumstance not yet present, or the withdrawal of some present impediment. But certainly, whatever God now wills to be, He
has from eternity willed to be. No new motion of the will can come upon Him: no defect or impediment can have clogged His power: there can have been nothing outside Himself for Him to wait for in the production of the universe, since there is nothing else uncreated save Him alone (Chapp. , ). It seems therefore necessary that God must have brought the creature into being from all eternity.
Reply. The object of the divine will is not the mere being of the creature, but its being at a certain time. What is thus willed, namely, the being of the creature at that time, is not delayed: because the creature began to exist then exactly when God from eternity arranged that it should begin to exist.
Arg. 5. An intellectual agent does not prefer one alternative to another except for some superiority of the one over the other. But where there is no difference, there can be no superiority. But between one non-existence and another non-existence there can be no difference, nor is one non-existence preferable to another. But, looking beyond the entire universe, we find nothing but the eternity of God. Now in nothing there can be assigned no difference of instants, that a thing should be done in one instant rather than in another. In like manner neither in eternity, which is all uniform and simple (B. I, Chap. ), can there be any difference of instants. It follows that the will of God holds itself in one unvarying attitude to the production of creatures throughout the whole of eternity. Either therefore His will is that creation never be realised at all under His eternity, or that it always be realised.
Reply. It is impossible to mark any difference of parts of any duration antecedent to the beginning of all creation, as the fifth objection supposed that we could do. For nothingness has neither measure nor duration, and the eternity of God has no parts, no before and no after. We cannot therefore refer the beginning of all creation to any severally marked points in any pre-existing measure. There are no such points for the beginning of creation to be referred to according to any relation of agreement or divergence. Hence it is impossible to demand any reason in the mind of the agent why he should have brought the creature into being in this particular marked instant of
duration rather than in that other instant preceding or following. God brought into being creation and time simultaneously. There is no account to be taken therefore why He produced the creature now, and not before, but only why the creature has not always been. There is an analogy in the case of place: for particular bodies are produced in a particular time and also in a particular place; and, because they have about them a time and a place within which they are contained, there must be a reason assignable why they are produced in this place and this time rather than in any other: but in regard of the whole stellar universe (coelum), beyond which there is no place, and along with which the universal place of all things is produced, no account is to be taken why it is situated here and not there. In like manner in the production of the whole creation, beyond which there is no time, and simultaneously with which time is produced, no question is to be raised why it is now and not before, but only why it has not always been, or why it has come to be after not being, or why it had any beginning.
Arg. 6. Means to the end have their necessity from the end, especially in voluntary actions. So long then as the end is uniform, the means to the end must be uniform or uniformly produced, unless they come to stand in some new relation to the end. Now the end of creatures proceeding from the divine will is the divine goodness, which alone can be the end in view of the divine will. Since then the divine goodness is uniform for all eternity, alike in itself and in comparison with the divine will, it seems that creatures must be uniformly brought into being by the divine will for all eternity. It cannot be said that any new relation to the end supervenes upon them, so long as the position is clung to that they had no being at all before a certain fixed time, at which they are supposed to have begun to be.
Reply. Though the end of the divine will can be none other than the divine goodness, still the divine will has not to work to bring this goodness into being, in the way that the artist works to set up the product of his art, since the divine goodness is eternal and unchangeable and incapable of addition. Nor does God work for His goodness as for an end to be won for Himself, as a king works to win a city: for God is His own goodness. He works for this end, only inasmuch as He produces an effect which is to share in the end. In such a production of things for an end, the uniform attitude of end to agent is not to be considered reason enough for an everlasting work. Rather we should consider the bearing of the end on the effect produced to serve it. The one evinced necessity is that of the production of the effect in the manner better calculated to serve the end for which it is produced.
Arg. 7. Since all things, so far as they have being, share in the goodness of God; the longer they exist, the more they share of that goodness: hence also the perpetual being of the species is said to be divine. But the divine
goodness is infinite. Therefore it is proper to it to communicate itself infinitely, and not for a fixed time only.
Reply. It was proper for the creature, in such likeness as became it, to represent the divine goodness. Such representation cannot be by way of equality: it can only be in such way as the higher and greater is represented by the lower and less. Now the excess of the divine goodness above the creature is best expressed by this, that creatures have not always been in existence: for thereby it appears that all other beings but God Himself have God for the author of their being; and that His power is not tied to producing effects of one particular character, as physical nature produces physical effects, but that He is a voluntary and intelligent agent.
[lib.2.cap.35.n.1] Solutio rationum sumptarum ex parte Dei. Oportet igitur ostendere præmissas rationes non ex necessitate conclusere, et primo illas quæ ex parte agentis sumuntur. 1. Non enim oportet quod per se vel per accidens Deus moveatur, si effectus ejus de novo incipiunt esse, ut prima ratio procedebat. Novitas enim effectus indicare potest mutationem agentis, in quantum demonstrat novitatem actionis; non enim potest esse quod in agente sit nova actio, nisi aliquo modo moveatur, saltem de otio in actum. Novitas autem divini effectus non demonstrat novitatem actionis in Deo, quum actio sua sit sua essentia, ut supra ostensum est (l. I, c. xlv). Unde neque novitas effectus mutationem Dei agentis demonstrare po-test. 2. Nec tamen oportet quod, si primi agentis actio sit æterna, ejus effectus sit æternus, ut secunda ratio concludebat. Ostensum est enim supra (c. xxiii) « Cum arguitur quod idem semper eodem modo se habens, natum est semper facere idem; sed motor primus semper uniformiter se habet; ergo quod ab eo procedit immediate semper procedit: potest dici quod si primum habet virtutem etiam in agente per voluntatem, verum est in illo qui excitatur a motivo exteriori, et qui secundum diversas apprehensiones diversimode afficitur et diversimode movetur. Deus autem non sic, quia voluntas ejus est uniformis, et licet aliquid faciat de novo, non tamen aliquid vult de novo, semper enim voluit id facere tunc quando fecit: non enim excitatur ejus voluntas ab exteriori volito, cum sit omnium causa. » (Ex cod. G. de F.) quod Deus agit voluntarie in rerum productione, non autem ita quod sit aliqua actio ipsius media, sicut in nobis actio virtutis motivæ est media, inter actum voluntatis et effectum, ut in praecedentibus ostensum est; sed oportet quod suum intelligere et velle sit suum facere; effectus autem ab intellectu et voluntate sequitur, secundum determinationem intellectus et imperium voluntatis. Sicut autem per intellectum determinatur rei factio et quæcumque alia conditio, ita, et praescribitur ei tempus; non enim solum ars determinat ut hoc tale sit, sed ut tunc sit, sicut medicus ut tunc detur potus; unde, si ejus velle per se esset efficax ad effectum producendum, sequeretur de novo effectus ab antiqua voluntate, nulla actione de novo exsistente. Nihil igitur prohibet dicere actionem Dei ab aeterno fuisse, effectum autem ejus non ab aeterno, sed tunc quum ab aeterno disposuit. 3. Ex quo etiam patet quod, etsi Deus sit sufficiens causa productionis rerum in esse, non tamen oportet quod ejus effectus aeternus ponatur, eo exsistente aeterno, ut tertia ratio concludebat. Posita enim causa sufficiente, ponitur ejus effectus, non autem effectus extraneus a causa; hoc enim esset ex insufficientia causa, ac si calidum non calefaceret. Proprius autem effectus voluntatis est ut sit hoc quod voluntas vult; si autem aliquid aliud esset quam voluntas velit, non poneretur effectus proprius causa, sed alienus ab ea; voluntas autem, sicut dictum est, sicut vult hoc esse tale, ita vult hoc esse tunc; unde oportet, ad hoc quod voluntas sit sufficiens causa, quod effectus sit quando voluntas est ut sit et quando voluntas effectum esse disposuit. In his autem quæ a causa naturaliter agente procedunt, secus est, quia actio naturæ est secundum quod ipsa est; unde ad esse causæ sequi oportet effectum. Voluntas autem agit non secundum modum sui esse, sed secundum modum sui propositi; et ideo, sicut effectus naturalis agentis sequitur esse agentis, si sit sufficiens, ita effectus agentis per voluntatem sequitur modum propositi. « Agens quod de se contrahit tempus, habet praeeligere tempus tempori; non sic de agente quod ipsum tempus producit, cum enim ante talis agentis productionem nullum sit tempus, non est ibi praeelectio. Sed videtur quod adhuc possit instari, quia licet tempus, in quo praeeligeretur mundus produci, non praecesserit, tamen totum tempus majus producere potuit; et sic mundus prius factus fuisset quam fuerit, potuit enim facere quod mundus durasset per septem mille anorum et amplius. Quare ergo hoc non fecit? Et consimile posset quæri quare tantum corpus fecit cum majus et melius facere potuerit. » (Ex cod. G. de F.) infinitum in corporibus; et similiter, in productione totius creaturæ, extra quam non est tempus et cum qua tempus simul producitur, non est attendenda ratio quare nunc et non prius, ut per hoc ducamur ad concedendam temporis infinitatem, sed solum quare non semper vel quare post non esse vel cum aliquo principio. 6. Ad hoc autem inquirendum sexta ratio inducebatur ex parte finis, qui solus inducere potest necessitatem in his quæ voluntate aguntur. Finis autem divinæ voluntatis non potest esse nisi ejus bonitas; non autem agit propter hunc finem producendum in esse, sicut artifex agit propter constitutionem artificiati; quum bonitas ejus sit æterna et immutabilis ita quod ei nihil accrescere potest; nec etiam potest dici quod propter ejus meliorationem Deus agat; etiam nec agit propter hunc finem acquirendum sibi, sicut rex pugnat ut acquirat civitatem; ipse enim est sua bonitas. Restat igitur quod agat propter finem, in quantum effectum producit ad participationem finis. In producendo igitur res sic propter finem, uniformis habitudo finis ad agentem non est consideranda ut ratio operis sempiterni; sed magis est attendenda habitudo finis ad effectum qui fit propter finem, ut taliter producatur effectus qualiter convenientius ordinetur ad finem. Unde, per hoc quod finis uniformiter se habet ad agentem, non potest concludi quod effectus sit sempiternus. 7. Nec est necessarium effectum divinum semper fuisse propter hoc quod sic convenientius ordinetur ad finem, ut septima ratio procedere videbatur; sed convenientius ordinatur ad finem propter hoc quod est non semper fuisse. Omne enim agens, producens effectum in participationem suæ formæ, intendit in eo inducere suam similitudinem; sic igitur divinæ voluntati conveniens fuit in suæ bonitatis participationem creaturam producere, ut sua similitudine divinam bonitatem repræsentaret. Non autem potest esse talis repræsentatio per modum æqualitatis, sicut effectus univocus suam causam repræsentat, ut sic oporteat ab infinita bonitate æternos effectus produci, sed sicut exceedens repræsentatur ab eo quod exceditur; excessus autem divinæ bonitatis supra creaturam per hoc maxime exprimitur quod creaturæ non semper fuerunt; ex hoc enim apparet expresse quod omnia alia, praeter Ipsum, eum habent sui esse auctorem, et quod virtus ejus non obligatur ad hujusmodi effectus producendos sicut natura ad effectus naturales; et per consequens quod est voluntate agens et intelligens. Quorum contraria quidam posuerunt, æternitatem creaturarum supponentes. Sic igitur ex parte agentis nihil est quod æternitatem creaturarum nos po-nere cogat.
Caput 36
[lib.2.cap.36.n.1] CHAPTERS XXXIII, XXXVI—Reasons alleged for the Eternity of the World on the part Creatures, with answers to the same
ARG. 1. There are creatures in which there is no potentiality of not being (see Chap. ): it is impossible for them not to be, and therefore they always must be.
Reply (Chap. ). The necessity of such creatures being is only a relative necessity, as shown above (Chap. ): it does not involve the creature’s always having been: it does not follow upon its substance: but when the creature is already established in being, this necessity involves the impossibility of its not-being.
Arg. 3. Every change must either go on everlastingly, or have some other change preceding it. But change always has been: therefore also changeable things: therefore creatures.
Reply. It has already been shown (Chapp. , ) that without any change in God, the agent, He may act to the production of a new thing, that has not always been. But if a new thing may be produced by Him, He may also originate a process of change.
Arg. 5. If time is perpetual, motion must be perpetual, time being the ‘record of motion.’ But time must be perpetual: for time is inconceivable without a present instant, as a line is inconceivable without a point: now a present instant is always inconceivable without the ending of a past and the beginning of a future instant; and thus every given present instant has
before it a time preceding and after it a time succeeding, and so there can be no first or last time. It follows that created substances in motion have been from eternity.
Reply. This argument rather supposes than proves the eternity of motion. The reason why the same instant is the beginning of the future and the end of the past is because any given phase of motion is the beginning and end of different phases. There is no showing that every instant must be of this character, unless it be assumed that every given phase of time comes between motion going before and motion following after, which is tantamount to assuming the perpetuity of motion. Assuming on the contrary that motion is not perpetual, one may say that the first instant of time is the beginning of the future, and not the end of any past instant. Even in any particular case of motion we may mark a phase which is the beginning only of movement and not the end of any: otherwise every particular case of motion would be perpetual, which is impossible.
Arg. 6. If time has not always been, we may mark a non-existence of time prior to its being. In like manner, if it is not always to be, we may mark a non-existence of it subsequent to its being. But priority and subsequence in point of duration cannot be unless time is; and at that rate time must have been before it was, and shall be after it has ceased, which is absurd. Time then must be eternal. But time is an accident, and cannot be without a subject. But the subject of it is not God, who is above time and beyond motion (B. I, Chapp. , ). The only alternative left is that some created substance must be eternal.
Reply. There is nothing in this argument to evince that the very supposition of time not being supposes that time is (read, Si ponitur tempus non esse, ponatur esse). For when we speak of something prior to the being of time, we do not thereby assert any real part of time, but only an imaginary part. When we say, ‘Time has being after not being’, we mean that there was no instant of time before this present marked instant: as when we say that there is nothing above the stellar universe, we do not mean that there is any place beyond the stellar universe, which may be spoken of as ‘above’ it, but that above it there is no ‘place’ at all.
[lib.2.cap.36.n.1] Solutio rationum sumptarum ex parte rerum factarum. Similiter etiam nec ex parte creaturæ est aliquid quod nos ad ejus æternitatem ponendam de necessitate inducat. 1. Necessitas enim essendi quæ in creaturis inventur, ex qua prima ratio sumitur, est necessitas ordinis, ut in pracedentibus (c. xxx) est ostensum. Necessitas autem ordinis non cogit ipsum, cui talis inest necessitas, semper fuisse, ut ostensum est supra (c. xxx et xxxi); licet enim substantia cæli, per hoc quod caret potentia ad non-esse, habeat necessitatem ad esse, hæc tamen necessitas non sequitur ejus substantiam. Unde, substantia ejus jam in esse instituta, talis necessitas impotentialitatem non essendi inducit, non autem facit esse impossibile cælum non esse, in consideratione qua agitur de productione substantiae ipsius. 2. Similiter etiam virtus essendi semper, ex qua procedebat secunda ratio, præ-supponit substantiae productionem; unde, quum de productione substantiae cæli agitur, talis virtus sempiternitatis argumentum sufficiens esse non potest. 3. Motus etiam sempiternitatem non cogit nos ponere ratio consequenter inducta. Jam enim patet quod, absque mutatione Dei agentis, potest esse quod novum agat, non sempiternum. Si autem possibile est ab eo aliquid agi de novo, patet quod et moveri; nam motus dispositionem voluntatis æternæ sequitur de motu non semper essendo. 4. Similiter etiam intentio naturalium agentium ad specierum perpetuitatem, ex qua quarta ratio procedebat, præsuponit naturalia agentia jam producta; unde locum non habet hæc ratio nisi in rebus naturalibus jam in esse productis, non autem quum de rerum productione agitur. — Utrum autem necesse sit ponere generationem perpetuo duraturam, in sequentibus ostendetur. 5. Ratio etiam quinta, ex tempore inducta, æternitatem motus magis supponit quam probat. Quum enim prius et posterius et continuitas temporis sequatur prius et posterius et continuitatem motus, secundum Aristotelis doctrinam, Physic. IV, c. xii, xiii, et xiv passim, patet quod ideo idem instans est principium futuri et finis præteriti, quia aliquid signatum in motu est principium et finis diversarum partium motus. Non oportebit igitur omne instans hujusmodi esse, nisi omne signum in tempore acceptum sit medium inter prius et posterius in motu; quod est ponere motum sempiternum. Ponens autem motum esse non sempiternum potest dicere primum instans temporis esse principium futuri et nullius præteriti finem. Nec repugnat successioni temporis quod ponatur in ipso aliquod nunc principium et non finis, propter hoc quod linea, in qua ponitur punctus aliquis principium et non finis, est stans et non fluens; quia etiam in motu aliquo particulari, qui etiam non est stans sed fluens, signari aliquid potest ut principium motus tantum et non ut finis; aliter enim omnis motus esset perpetuus, quod est imposibile. 6. Quod autem prius ponitur non-esse temporis quam ejus esse, si tempus incepit, non cogit nos dicere quod, si ponitur tempus esse, ponatur non esse ut sexta ratio concludebat. Nam prius, quod dicimus antequam tempus esset, non ponit aliquam temporis partem in re, sed solum in imaginatione; quum enim dicimus: Tempus habet esse post non-esse, intelligimus quod non fuit aliqua pars temporis ante hoc nunc signatum; sicut quum dicimus quod supra cœlum nihil est, non intelligimus quod aliquis locus sit extra cœlum, qui possit dici supra respectu cœli, sed quod non est locus eo superior. Utrobique autem imaginatio potest mensuram aliquam rei exsistenti opponere, ratione cujus, sicut non est ponenda quantitas corporis infinita, ut dicitur, in tertio Physicorum libro, c. v, ita nec tempus aternum. 7. Veritas autem propositionum, quam oportet concedere etiam propositiones negantem, ex qua septima ratio procedebat, habet necessitatem ordinis qui est prædicati ad subjectum; unde non cogit aliquam rem esse semper, nisi forte intellectum divinum, in quo, est radix omnis veritatis, ut in primo ostensum est (l. I c. liv). Patet igitur quod rationes ex creaturis inductæ non cogunt ad mundi æternitatem ponendam.
Caput 37
[lib.2.cap.37.n.1] CHAPTER XXXIV, XXXVII—Reasons alleged for the Eternity of the World on the part of the Creative Process itself, with Answers to the same
ARG. 1. It is the common opinion of all philosophers, and therefore it must be true, that nothing is made of nothing (Aristotle, Physics, B. I, Chapp. , ). Whatever is made, then, must be made of something; and that again, if it is made at all, must be made of something else. But this process cannot go on to infinity; and therefore we must come to something that was not made. But every being that has not always been must have been made. Therefore that out of which all things are first made must be something everlasting. That cannot be God, because He cannot be
the material of anything. Therefore there must be something eternal outside God, namely, primordial matter.
Reply (Chap. ). The common position of philosophers, that nothing is made of nothing, is true of the sort of making that they considered. For all our knowledge begins in sense, which is of singular objects; and human investigation has advanced from particular to general considerations. Hence, in studying the beginning of things, men gave their attention to the making of particular things in detail. The making of one sort of being out of another sort is the making of some particular being, inasmuch as it is ‘this being,’ not as it is ‘being’ generally: for some prior being there was that now is changed into ‘this being.’ But entering more deeply into the origin of things, philosophers came finally to consider the issuing of all created being from one first cause (Chapp. , ). In this origin of all created being from God, it is impossible to allow any making out of pre-existent material: for such making out of pre-existent material would not be a making of the whole being of the creature. This first making of the universe was not attained to in the thought of the early physicists, whose common opinion it was that nothing was made of nothing: or if any did attain to it, they considered that such a term as ‘making’ did not properly apply to it, since the name ‘making’ implies movement or change, whereas in this origin of all being from one first being there can be no question of the transmutation of one being into another (Chap. ). Therefore it is not the concern of physical science to study this first origin of all things: that study belongs to the metaphysician, who deals with being in general and realities apart from motion. We may however by a figure of speech apply the name of ‘making’ to creation, and speak of things as ‘made,’ whatsoever they are, the essence or nature whereof has its origin from other being.
Arg. 2. Everything that takes a new being is now otherwise than as it was before: that must come about by some movement or change: but all movement or change is in some subject: therefore before anything is made there must be some subject of motion.
Reply. The notion of motion or change is foisted in here to no purpose: for what nowise is, is not anywise, and affords no hold for the conclusion that, when it begins to be, it is otherwise than as it was before.
These then are the reasons which some hold to as demonstrative, and necessarily evincing that creatures have always existed, wherein they contradict the Catholic faith, which teaches that nothing but God has always existed, and that all else has had a beginning of being except the one eternal God. Thus then it evidently appears that there is nothing to traverse our assertion, that the world has not always existed. And this the Catholic faith teaches: In the beginning God created heaven and earth (Gen. i, 1): and, Before he made anything, from the beginning (Prov. viii, 22).
[lib.2.cap.37.n.1] Solutiones rationum sumptarum ex parte factionis rerum. Restat autem ostendere quod nec ex parte productionis rerum aliqua ratio sumpta cogere possit ad idem. 1. Communis enim philosophorum positio ponentium ex nihilo nihil fieri, ex qua prima ratio procedebat, veritatem habet, secundum illud fieri quod ipsi considerabant. Quia enim omnis nostra cognitio a sensu incipit, qui singularium est, a particularibus considerationibus ad universales consideratio humana profecit; unde, principium rerum perquirentes, particulares factiones entium tantum consideraverunt, inquirentes qualiter vel hic ignis vel hic lapis fiat. Et ideo primi, magis extrinsece quam oporteret fieri rem considerantes, posuerunt rem fieri solum secundum quasdam accidentales dispositiones, ut rarum, densum et hujusmodi, dicentes per consequens fieri nihil esse nisi alterari, propter hoc quod ex ente actu unumquodque fieri intelligebant. Posteriores vero, magis intrinsece rerum factionem considerantes, ad fieri reum secundum substantiam processerunt, ponentes quod non oportet aliquid fieri ex ente in actu nisi per accidens, sed per se ex ente in potentia. Hoc autem fieri, quod est entis ex qualicumque ente, est factio particularis entis; quod quidem 1 A, B, C, D, E, F, omittunt: « Jam. » fit in quantum est ens hoc, ut homo vel ignis, non autem in quantum est ens universaliter; ens enim prius erat quod in hoc ens transmutatur. Profundius autem ad rerum originem ingredientes, consideraverunt ad ultimum totius entis creati ab una prima causa processionem, ut ex rationibus hoc ostendentibus supra positis patet (c. xv et xvi). In hac autem processione totius entis a Deo, non est possibile fieri aliquid ex aliquo alio præjacente; non enim esset totius entis creati factio. Et hanc quidem factionem non attigerunt primi naturales, quorum erat communis sententia, ex nihilo nihil fieri; vel si qui eam attigerunt, non proprie nomen factionis ei competere consideraverunt, quum nomen factionis motum vel mutationem importet. In hac autem totius entis origine ab uno primo ente, intelligi non potest trasmutatio unius entis in aliud, ut ostensum est (c. xvii); propter quod nec ad naturalem philosophum pertinethujusmodi rerum originem considerare, sed ad philosophum primum, qui considerat ens commune et ea quæ sunt separata a motu. Nos tamen sub quadam similitudine etiam ad illam originem nomen factionis transferimus, ut dicamus facta ea quorumcumque essentia vel natura ab aliis originem habet. 2. Ex quo patet quod nec secunda ratio de necessitate concludit, quæ ex ratione motus sumebatur. Nam creatio mutatio dici non potest nisi secundum metaphoram, prout creatum consideratur habere esse post non-esse; ratione cujus aliquid ex alio fieri dicitur, etiam eorum quæ invicem transmutationem non habent, ex hoc solo quod unum eorum est post alterum, sicut dies ex nocte. Nec ratio motus inducta ad hoc aliquid face-re potest; nam quod nullo modo est non se habet aliquo modo, ut possit concludi quod, quando incipit esse, alio modo se habeat nunc quam prius. 3. Ex hoc etiam patet quod non oportet aliquam potentiam passivam præcedere esse totius entis creati, ut tertia ratio concludebat. Hoc enim est necessarium in illis quæ, per motum, essendi principium sumunt, eo quod motus est actus exsistentis in potentia. Possibile autem fuit ens creatum esse antequam esset, per potentiam agentis per quam et esse incepit, vel propter habitudinem terminorum in quibus nulla repugnantia inventur; quod quidem possibile secundum nullam potentiam dicitur, ut patet per Philosophum, Metaphys. V, c. xii; hoc enim prædicatum, quod est esse, non repugnat huic subjecto, quod est mundus vel homo, sicut commensurabile repugnat diametro; et sic sequitur quod non sit impossibile esse, et per consequens quod sit possibile esse antequam esset, etiam nulla potentia exsistente. In his autem quæ per motum fiunt, oportet prius fuisse possibile per aliquam passivam potentiam; in quibus Philosophus, Metaphys, VII c. vii, hac utitur ratione. 4. Patet igitur etiam ex hoc, quod nec quarta ratio ad propositum concludit.; sed aliquis « Ad » expungendum notavit. « Cum nihil aliud sit dicere creaturam esse de nihilo nisi quod creatura de sui natura habet non esse, non est autem inconveniens quod illud quod de sua natura habet non esse ab æterno, habuerit esse virtute alterius, sicut aqua, quæ naturaliter est frigida de se, statim cum est potest habere caliditatem, et ponit esse quod semper habuit, sicut semper fuit, licet ab agente extrinseco: ita de existentia mundi potest dici. Aliis videtur convenientius quod mundus ab æterno esse non potuit. Ubi enim aliquid procedit de substantia alterius, et naturali necessitate, procedens bene potest esse coæternum producenti, sed quando non, non; sicut artifex habet præcedere artificiatum. Quia ergo creaturæ non procedunt de substantia Dei, sed procedunt ab eo voluntarie, et per modum artis, non possunt esse Deo coæternæ; imo, si ponitur creatura fuisse ab æterno, implicantur opposita, quia in quantum creatura procedit per libertatem voluntatis non fuit necesse creaturam esse; sed si ab habere esse post non-esse; ratione cujus aliquid ex alio fieri dicitur, etiam eorum quæ invicem transmutationem non habent, ex hoc solo quod unum eorum est post alterum, sicut dies ex nocte. Nec ratio motus inducta ad hoc aliquid face-re potest; nam quod nullo modo est non se habet aliquo modo, ut possit concludi quod, quando incipit esse, alio modo se habeat nunc quam prius. XII. Nam fieri non simul est causa esse rei, in his quæ per motum fiunt, in quorum fieri successio invenitur; in his autem quæ non fiunt per motum, non prius est fieri quam esse. Sic igitur evidenter apparet quod nihil prohibet ponere mundum non semper fuisse; quod fides catholica ponit: In principio creavit Deus cælum et terram, Gen. i, 4. Et de Deo dicitur: Antequam quidquam faceret a principio, etc., Proverb. viii, 22.
Caput 38
[lib.2.cap.38.n.1] CHAPTER XXXVIII—Arguments wherewith some try to show that the World is not Eternal, and Solutions of the same
ARG. 1. God is the cause of all things (Chap. ). But a cause must be prior in duration to the effects of its action.
Reply. That is true of things that act by motion, for the effect is not till the termination of the motion: but with causes that act instantaneously there is no such necessity.
Arg. 2. Since the whole of being is created by God, it cannot be said to be made out of any being: whence the conclusion follows that it is made out of nothing, and consequently that it has existence after not existing.
Reply. To the notion of being made out of something, if that is not admitted one must supply the contradictory notion: which contradictory notion is not being made out of anything. Observe, it is not being made out of nothing, except in the former sense of not being made out of anything.
Arg. 3. It is not possible to pass through infinity. But if the world always had been, infinity would have been passed through by this time, there being infinite days, or daily rounds of the sun, if the world always has been.
Reply. An infinite quantity, though not existing in simultaneous actual realisation, may nevertheless be in succession, because every infinite, so taken, is really finite. Any given round of the sun could be passed, because so far the number of them was finite: but when they are all viewed together, on the supposition that the world had always existed, it would be impossible to fix upon any first day, and so to make any transition from that to the present day, since transition always requires two extreme points.
Arg 4. It would follow that addition is made to the infinite, because to past days, or sun-rounds, a new round is daily added.
Reply. There is nothing to hinder addition to the infinite on that side on which it is finite. Supposing time eternal, it must be infinite as preceding, but finite as succeeding, for the present is the limit of the past.
Arg. 5. It would follow in a world always existing that we should have an infinite series of efficient causes, father being cause of child, and grandfather to father, and so to infinity.
Reply. The impossibility of an infinite series of efficient causes, according to philosophers (Aristotle, Metaph. ii, 2), holds for causes acting together: because then the effect has to depend on an infinity of co-existent actions;
and the infinity of causes there is essential, the whole infinite multitude of them being requisite for the production of the effect. But in the case of causes not acting together no such impossibility holds, in the opinion of those who suppose an endless series of generations. The infinity in this case is accidental to the causes: for to Socrates’s father, as such, it is quite an accident whether he be the son of another man or no: whereas to a stick, inasmuch as it moves a stone, it is not an accident whether it be moved by an hand: for it only moves inasmuch as it is moved.
Arg. 6. It would follow that an infinite multitude exists, to wit, the immortal souls of infinite men who have been in the past.
Reply. This objection is more difficult: nevertheless the argument is not of much use, because it supposes many things.
Since these reasons, alleged by some to prove that the world has not always existed, are not necessarily conclusive, though they have a certain probability, it is sufficient to touch on them slightly, without insisting too much, that the Catholic faith may not seem to rest on empty reasonings, and not rather on the solid basis of the teaching of God.
[lib.2.cap.38.n.1] Rationes quibus conantur aliqui ostendere mundum non esse æternum, et solutiones earum. Sunt autem quædam rationes a quibusdam inductæ ad probandum mundum non semper fuisse, sumptæ ex his: 1. Deum enim esse omnium rerum causam demonstratum est (c. xv). Causam autem oportet duratione præcedere ea quæ per actionem causæ fiunt. 2. Item, Quum totum ens a Deo sit creatum, non potest dici factum esse ex aliquo ente; et sic relinquitur quod sit factum ex nihilo, et per consequens quod habeat esse post non-esse. 3. Adhuc, Quia infinita non est transire. Si autem mundus semper fuisset, essent jam infinita pertransita, quia quod præteritum est pertransitum est; sunt au-tem infiniti dies vel circulationes solis præteritæ, si mundus semper fuit. 4. Præterea, Sequitur quod infinito fiat additio, quum ad dies vel circulationes præteritas quotidie de novo addatur. 5. Amplius, Sequitur quod in causis efficientibus sit procedere in infinitum, si generatio fuit semper; quod oportet dicere, mundo semper exsistente; nam filii causa est pater et hujus alius, et sic in infinitum. 6. Rursus 1, Sequitur quod sint infinita, scilicet infinitorum hominum præteritorum animæ immortales. Has autem rationes, quia usquequaque non de necessitate conclusunt, licet probabilitatem habeant, sufficit tangere solum, ne videatur fides catholica in vanis rationibus constituta et non potius in solidissima Dei doctrina; et ideo conveniens videtur ponere qualiter obvietur eis per eos qui æternitatem mundi posuerunt. Quod enim primo dicitur, agens de necessitate præcedere effectum qui per suam operationem fit, verum est in his quæ agunt aliquid per motum, quia effectus non est nisi in termino motus; agens autem necesse est esse etiam quum motus incipit; in his autem quæ in instanti agunt, hoc non est necesse; sicut simul, dum sol est in puncto orientis, illuminat nostrum hemisphærium. 1 A, B, C,; sed in C alia manus scriptis: « Actu. » E, F, G, H, K, omittunt: « Præteritorum. » A, B, C, D, omittunt: « Immortales. » « Semper dicit totalitatem mensuræ durationis, quæ cum sit triplex potest dicere totalitatem æternitatis, et sic soli Deo convenit semper esse; aut aevi, et sic aeviternis; aut temporis, et sic convenit motui primo, qui commetitur se tempori; sed ponere motum non incepisse, nec terminari, simpliciter loquendo, falsum est; sed secundum viam naturæ quam consideravit Philosophus, secundum quam non fit aliquid, nisi per transmutationem quæ requirit subjectum, verum est. Motus etiam quasi terminatur secundum naturam, aut propter lassitudinem motoris, aut propter corruptionem mobilis, aut propter hoc quod ad terminum deveniatur: sic autem primus motus non potest terminari, sed secundum virtutem incepit per mutationem, quæ est creatio, quæ subito est, et de nihilo, ad quam se non extendit consideratio Philosophi naturalis. Primum enim mobile creatum est, et cum illo concreata est sua duratio, et mensura suæ durationis, scilicet nunc temporis, et illud nunc latum efficit tempus, sicut primum mobile latum facit motum; latio autem illa fuit statim cum fuit, et hoc est ex influentia motoris super mobile, et quamdiu datur hæc influentia, datur etiam motus. Inceperunt ergo simul duratione mobile et motus et tempus. Et similiter desinente motu desineret tempus.
Caput 41
[lib.2.cap.41.n.1] CHAPTER XLI—That the Variety of Creatures does not arise from any Contrariety of Prime Agents
IF the diversity of things proceeds from diversity or contrariety of diverse agents, this would seem to hold especially of the contrariety of good and evil, so that all good things should proceed from a good principle, and evils from an evil principle. Now there is good and evil in all genera. But there cannot be one first principle of all evils: for the very essence of such a principle would be evil, and that is impossible. Everything that is, inasmuch as it is a being, must necessarily be good: for it loves and strives to preserve its own being, a sign whereof is this fact, that everything fights against its own destruction: now what all things seek is good. It is impossible therefore for the diversity of things to arise from two principles, one good and one evil.
What in no manner of way is, is neither good nor evil: while every thing that is, in so far as it is, is good. A thing can be evil therefore only inasmuch as it is not-being, that is, privative being; and the evil is precisely the privation. Now privation never comes of the ordinary action of any cause: because every cause acts inasmuch as it is endowed with ‘form’; and thus the ordinary effect of its action must also be endowed with ‘form,’ since every agent acts to the production of its own likeness, unless it be accidentally hindered. It follows that evil does not come of the ordinary action of any cause, but is accidentally incident among the effects of ordinary causation. There is therefore no one primary and essential principle of all evil: but the first principle of all is one primary good, among the effects of which there ensues evil incidentally.
Hence it is said: I am the Lord, and there is none other, forming light and creating darkness, making peace and creating evil: I am the Lord doing all these things (Isa. xlv, 6, 7). And, Good things and evil things, life and death, poverty and rank are from God (Ecclus xi, 14). And, Against evil is good, and against life death; so against the just man is the sinner. And so behold all the works of the Most High, two and two, and one against one (Ecclus xxxiii, 15).
God is said to make and create evil things, inasmuch as He creates things that are good in themselves and yet hurtful to others: thus the wolf, though a good thing naturally in his kind, is evil to the sheep. Hence it is said: Shall there be evil in the city that the Lord hath not done? (Amos iii, 6.)
Hereby is excluded the error of those who suppose two primitive contrary principles, good and evil. This error of the early philosophers some evil-minded men have presumed to introduce into Christian teaching, the first of whom was Marcion, and afterwards the Manicheans, who have done most to spread this error.
[lib.2.cap.41.n.1] Quod distinctio rerum non est propter contrarietatem primorum agentium. Ex præmissis autem ostendi potest quod causa distinctionis rerum non est diversitas aut contrarietas agentium. 1. Si enim diversi agentes, ex quibus procedit rerum diversitas, sunt ordinati ad invicem, oportet quod hujusmodi ordinis sit aliqua causa una; nam multa non uniuntur nisi per aliquod unum; et sic illius ordinis est una causa et una distinctionis rerum. Si vero diversi agentes non sint ad invicem ordinati, concursus eorum ad diversitatem rerum producendam erit per accidens; distinctio igitur rerum erit casualis; cujus contrarietum supra (c. xxxix) est ostensum. 2. Item, A diversis causis non ordinatis non procedunt effectus ordinati, nisi forte per accidens; diversa autem, in quantum hujusmodi, non faciunt unum. Res autem distinctæ inveniuntur habere ordinem ad invicem non casualiter, quum, ut in pluribus, unum ab alio moveatur. Impossibile est igitur quod distinctio rerum sic ordinatarum sit propter diversitatem agentium non ordinatorum. 3. Amplius, Quæcumque habent causam suæ distinctionis non possunt esse prima causa distinctionis rerum: sed, si plura entia ex æquo accipiantur, necesse est quod habeant causam suæ distinctionis; habent enim causam essendi, quum omnia entia sint ab uno primo ente, ut supra (c. xv) ostensum est. Idem autem est causa essendi alicui et distinctionis ejus ab aliis, sicut (c. xl) ostensum est. Non potest igitur esse prima causa distinctionis rerum diversitas agentium. 1 Cod. Berg.: « Contrarietatem agentium. », N, et cod. Berg. — Cod. Bergom.: « Est prima causa, et una. » sed hic alia manus inseruit: « Causa. » 4. Item, Si diversitas rerum procedat a diversitate vel contrarietate diversorum agentium, maxime hoc videtur (quod et plures ponunt) de contrarietate boni et mali; ita quod omnia bona procedant a bono principio, mala a malo. Bonum autem et malum sunt in omnibus generibus; non autem potest esse unum primum principium omnium malorum; quum enim ea quæ sunt per aliud, reducantur ad ea quæ sunt per se, oportebit principium activum malorum esse per se malum. Per se autem dicimus tale quod per essentiam suam tale est. Ejus igitur essentia erit mala. Hoc autem est impossibile; omne enim quod est, in quantum est ens, necesse est esse bonum; esse namque suum unumquodque amat et conservari appetit; signum autem est quia contrapugnat unumquodque suæ corruptioni: bonum autem est quod omnia appetunt. Non potest igitur distinctio in rebus procedere a duobus contrariis principiis, quorum unum sit bonum et aliud malum. 5. Adhuc, Omne agens agit in quantum est actu; in quantum vero est actu, est unumquodque perfectum; perfectum vero omne in quantum hujusmodi, bonum dicimus. Omne igitur agens, in quantum hujusmodi, bonum est. Si quid igitur per se malum est, non poterit esse agens. Si autem est malorum primum principium, oportet esse per se malum, ut ostensum est. Impossibile est igitur distinctionem in rebus procedere a duobus principiis, bono et malo. 6. Amplius, Si omne ens, in quantum hujusmodi, bonum est, malum igitur, in quantum est malum, est non-ens. Nonentis autem, in quantum hujusmodi, non est ponere causam agentem, quum omne agens agat in quantum est ens actu; agit autem unumquodque sibi simile. Mali igitur, in quantum est hujusmodi, non est ponere causam per se agentem. Non est igitur fieri reductionem malorum in unam primam causam quæ per se sit causa omnium malorum. 7. Adhuc, Quod educitur praeter intentionem agentis, non habet causam per se, sed per accidens, sicut quum quis invent thesaurum, fodiens ad plantandum. Sed malum in effectu aliquo non potest provenir nisi praeter intentionem agentis, quum omne agens ad bonum intendat: bonum enim est quod omnia appetunt. Malum igitur non habet causam per se, sed per accidens incidit in effectibus causarum. Non igitur est ponere unum primum principium omnium malorum. 8. Item Contrariorum agentium sunt contrariæ actiones. Eorum igitur quæ per unam actionem producuntur non sunt ponenda principia contraria. Bonum autem et malum eadem actione producuntur; eadem enim actione aqua corrumpitur etaer generatur. Non suntigitur, propter differentiam boni et mali in rebus inventam, ponenda principia contraria. 9. Amplius, Quod omnino non est, nec bonum nec malum est; quod autem est, in quantum est, bonum est, ut ostensum est. Oportet igitur malum esse aliquid, in quantum est non-ens; hoc autem est ens privatum, malum igitur in quantum hujusmodi est ens privatum, et ipsum malum est ipsa privatio. Privatio autem non habet causam per se agentem, quia omne agens agit in quantum habet formam; et sic oportet per se effectum agentis esse habens formam, quum agens agat sibi simile, nisi per accidens. Relinquitur igitur quod malum non habet causam per se agentem, sed incidit per accidens in effectibus causarum per se agentium. Non est igitur unum primum et per se malorum principium; sed primum omnium principium est unum primum bonum, in cujus effectibus consequitur malum per accidens. Hinc est quod dicitur: Ego Dominus, et non est alter Deus, formans lucem et creans tenebras; faciens pacem et creans malum; ego Dominus faciens omnia hæc, Isai. xlv, 6-7. Et: Bona et mala, vita et mors, paupertas et honestas a Deo sunt, Eccli. xl, 14. Et: Contra malum bonum est, et contra vitam mors; sic et contra virum justum est peccator. Et sic intuere in omnia opera Altissimi. Duo et duo, et unum contra unum, Eccli. xxxiii, 15. Dicitur autem Deus facere mala vel creare, in quantum creat ea quæ secundum se bona sunt et tamen aliis sunt nociva; sicut lupus, quamvis in sua specie quoddam bonum naturæ sit, tamen ovi est malus; et similiter ignis aquæ, « Non per accidens. » « in quantum est hujusmodi corruptivus; et per similem modum est causa malorum in omnibus quæ pænæ dicuntur; unde dicitur: Si erit malum in civitate quod Dominus non fecerit? Amos. 111, 6. Ethoc est quod Gregorius dicit: « Neque enim mala, quæ nulla sua natura subsistunt, a Domino creantur; sed creare se mala Dominus indicat, quum res bene conditas nobis male agentibus in flagellum format, Moral. l. III, c. 1x, in cap. 11. B. Job. Per hoc autem excluditur error ponentium prima principia contraria; qui error primo incepit ab Empedocle; posuit enim duo prima principia agentia, amicitiam et litem, quorum amicitiam dixit esse causam generationis, litem vero corruptionis; ex quo videtur ut Aristoteles dicit, Metaphys. I, c. 1v, hæc duo, bonum et malum, prima principia contraria posuisse. Posuit autem et Pythagoras duo prima, bonum et malum; sed non per modum principiorum agentium, sed per modum formalium principiorum; ponebat enim hæc duo esse genera sub quibus omnia alia comprehenderentur, ut patet per Philosophum, Metaphys. I, c. v. Hos autem antiquissimorum philosophorum errores, qui etiam sunt per posteriores philosophos sufficienter exclusi, quidam perversi sensus homines doctrinæ christianæ adjungere præsumpserunt; quorum primus fuit 1 Marcus a quo Marchiani sunt dicti, qui sub nomine christiano hæresim conditit, opinatus duo sibi diversa principia: quem secuti sunt Cerdoniani, et postmodum 2 Marchionistæ, et ultimo Manichæi qui hunc errorem maxime diffuderunt.
Caput 44
[lib.2.cap.44.n.1] CHAPTER XLIV—That the Variety of Creatures has not arisen from Variety of Merits and Demerits
ORIGEN in his book περὶ ἀρχῶν says that God out of mere bounty in His first production of creatures made them all equal, all spiritual and rational, and they by free will behaved in various ways, some adhering to God more or less, and others receding from Him more or less; and thus by order of divine justice various grades ensued among spiritual substances, some appearing as angels of various orders, some as human souls also of various states and conditions, some again as demons in various states. He also said that it was through this variety of rational creatures that God instituted a variety also of material creatures, so that the nobler spiritual substances should be united to the nobler bodies, and that in divers other ways the material creation might serve to express the variety of spiritual substances. According to Origen, man, sun, and stars are composed of rational substances united with corresponding bodies. Now all this opinion can be shown to be manifestly false.
1. The better a thing is, the higher place does it hold in the intention of the agent who produces it. But the best thing in creation is the perfection
of the universe, which consists in the orderly variety of things: for in all things the perfection of the whole is preferable to the perfection of parts and details. Therefore the diversity of creatures does not arise from diversity of merits, but was primarily intended by the prime agent.
2. If all rational creatures were created equal from the beginning, we should have to allow that they do not depend for their activity one on another. What arises by the concurrence of divers causes working independently of one another is matter of chance; and thus the diversity and order of creation comes by chance, which is impossible.
12. Since a spiritual creature, or angel, does not deserve to be degraded except for sin, — and it is degraded from its high, invisible estate, by being united with a visible body, — it seems that visible bodies have been added to these spiritual creatures because of sin; which comes near to the error of the Manicheans, who laid it down that the visible creation proceeded from an evil principle.
Origen seems not to have given sufficient weight to the consideration that, when we give, not in discharge of any debt, but out of liberality, it is not contrary to justice if we give in unequal measure: but God brought things into being under no debt, but of sheer liberality (Chap. ): therefore the variety of creatures does not presuppose variety of merits.
[lib.2.cap.44.n.1] Quod rerum distinctio non processit ex meritorum vel demeritorum diversitate. Nunc superest ostendere quod rerum distinctio non processit ex diversis motibus liberi arbitrii rationalium creaturarum, ut posuit Origenes in libro Περὶ Αρχών. Volens enim resistere antiquorum hæreticorum objectionibus et erroribus (qui ostendere nitebantur diversam naturam boni et mali esse in rebus ex contra-ris actoribus, propter multam distantiam inventam tam in rebus naturalibus quam in rebus humanis, quam nulla merita præcessisse videntur; scilicet quod corpora quædam sunt lucida, quædam obscura; quidam homines ex barbaris, quidam ex christianis nascuntur), coactus est ponere omnem diversitatem in rebus inventam, ex diversitate meritorum, secundum Dei justitiam, processisse. Dicit enim quod Deus, ex sola sua bonitate, primo omnes creaturas αἱquales produxit et omnes spirituales et rationales, quæ per liberum arbitrium diversimode sunt motæ, quædam adhærentes Deo plus vel minus, quædam ab eo recedentes magis vel minus; et secundum hoc, diversi gradus in substantiis spiritualibus ex divina justitia sunt subsecuti, ut quidam essent Angeli secundum diversos ordines, quidam animæ humanæ etiam secundum diversos status, quidam etiam dæmones in statibus diversis; et propter diversitatem rationalium creaturarum dicebat diversitatem corporalium creaturarum Deum instituisse, ut nobilioribus corporibus nobiliores spirituales substantiæ adjungerentur, ut diversimode corporalis creatura spiritualium substantiarum diversitati quibuslibet modis aliis deserviret. Hæc autem opinio esse falsa manifeste convincitur. 1. Quanto enim aliquid est melius in effectibus, tanto est prius in intentione agentis. Optimum autem in rebus creatis est perfectio universi, quæ consistit in ordine distinctarum rerum; in omnibus enim perfectio totius præeminet perfectioni singularium partium. Igitur diversitas rerum provenit, non ex diversitate meritorum, sed ex principali intentione primi agentis. 2. Adhuc, Si omnes creaturæ rationales a principio fuerunt αἱquales creatæ, opor-tet dicere quod una earum in sua operatione ab alia non dependet. Quod autem provenit ex concursu diversarum causarum quarum una ab alia non dependet, est casuale. Igitur, secundum prædictam positionem, talis distinctio et ordo rerum est casualis; quod est impossibile, ut supra (c. xxxix) ostensum est. 3. Amplius, Quod est alicui naturale non acquiritur ab eo per voluntatem; motus enim voluntatis sive liberi arbitrii præ-supponit existentiam volentis, ad quam ejus naturalia exiguntur. Si igitur per motum liberi arbitrii acquisitus est diversus gradus rationalium creaturarum, nulli creaturæ rationali erit suus gradus naturalis, sed accidentalis. Hoc autem est impossibile; quum enim differentia specifica 1 2 3 « Superest ut in omni creatura sui operis suorumque motuum fuerit quod virtutes istæ quæ vel principatum agere in aliis, vel potestatem exercere, vel dominationem videntur, ex merito, et non per conditionis prærogativam prælatæ sint et superpositæ his quibus præesse, vel in quos potestatem exercere dicuntur. » (περιὰ αρχών, lib. I, cap. v, n. 3. — Patrol. græcolat. tom. XI, col. 160.) 4 sit unicuique naturalis, sequitur quod omnes substantiae rationales creatæ sint unius speciei, scilicet Angeli, dæmones, et animæ humanæ, et animæ cælestium corporum quæ Origenes animata ponebat. Et hoc esse falsum diversitas actionum naturalium declarat; non enim est idem modus quo naturaliter intelligit intellectus humanus qui sensu et phantasia indiget, et intellectus angelicus, et anima solis; nisi forte fingamus Angelos et cælestia corpora habere carnes et ossa et alias hujusmodi partes, ad hoc quod possint organa sensuum habere, quod est absurdum. Relinquitur igitur quod diversitas substantiarum intellectualium non consequitur diversitatem meritorum quæ sunt secundum motus liberi arbitrii. 4. Adhuc, Si ea quæ sunt naturalia non acquiruntur per motum liberi arbitrii, animam autem rationalem tali corpori uniri acquiritur ei propter præcedens meritum vel demeritum secundum motum liberi arbitrii, sequetur quod conjunctio hujus animæ ad hoc corpus non sit naturalis. Ergo nec compositum est naturale. Homo autem et sol, secundum Origenem, et astra sunt composita ex substantiis rationalibus et corporibus talibus. Ergo omnia hujusmodi, quæ sunt nobilissima inter corporeas substantias, sunt innaturalia. 5. Item, Si huic substantiae rationali non convenit, in quantum est talis substantia, huic corpori uniri, sed magis in quantum est, sic materiam huic corpori uniri non est ei per se, sed per accidens. Ex his autem quæ per accidens uniuntur, non resultat aliqua species, quia non fit ex eis unum per se; non enim est aliqua species homo albus vel homo vestitus. Relinquitur igitur quod homo non sit aliqua species, nec sol, nec luna, nec aliqid hujusmodi. 6. Amplius, Ea quæ ad merita consequuntur possunt in melius vel in pejus mutari. Merita autem et demerita possunt augeri vel minui, et præcipue secundum Origenem, qui dicebat liberum arbitrium cujuslibet creaturæ semper esse in utramque partem flexibile. Si igitur anima rationalis hoc corpus consecuta est propter præcedens meritum vel demeritum, sequetur quod possit iterum conjungi alteri corpori; et non solum quod anima humana assumat aliud corpus humanum, sed etiam quod assumat quando corpus sidereum; quod est secundum py-thagoricas fabulas quamlibet animam quodlibet corpus ingredi. Hoc autem, et secundum philosophiam apparet esse erroneum, secundum quam determinatis formis et motoribus assignantur determinatæ materiæ et determinata mobilia; et secundum fidem hareticum, quæ animam in resurrectione idem corpus resumere prædicat quod deponit. 7. Præterea, Quum multitudo sine diversitate esse non possit, si fuerunt a principio creaturæ rationales in quadam multitudine constitutæ, oportuit in eis aliquam diversitatem fuisse. Aliquid ergo habuit una earum quod non habuit altera; et si hoc ex diversitate meriti non procedat, pari ratione nec fuit necesse ut gradus diversitas ex meritorum diversitate proveniret. 8. Item, Omnis distinctio aut est secundum divisionem quantitatis, quæ in solis corporibus est, unde in substantiis primo creatis, secundum Origenem, esse non potuit; aut secundum divisionem formalem, quæ sine gradus diversitate esse non potest, quum talis divisio reducatur ad privationem et formam, et sic oportet quod altera formarum condivisarum sit melior et altera vilior; unde, secundum Philosophum, Metaphys. VIII, c. 111, species rerum sunt sicut numeri, quorum unus alteri addit aut minuit. Sic igitur, si fuerunt a principio multæ substantiae rationales creatæ, oportet quod fuerit in eis gradus diversitas. 9. Item, Si creaturæ rationales sine corporibus subsistere possunt, non fuit necessarium propter diversa merita rationalium creaturarum diversitatem in natura corporali institui; quia, et sine diversitate corporum, poterat diversus gradus in substantiis rationalibus inveniri. Si autem creaturæ rationales sine corporibus subsistere non possunt, ergo a principio simul cum creatura rationali est etiam creatura corporalis instituta. Major est autem distantia corporalis creaturæ ad spiritualem quam spiritualium creaturarum ad invicem. Si igitur a principio Deus tam magnam distantiam in suis creaturis instituit absque aliquibus meritis præcedentibus, non oportuit merita diversa præcedere ad hoc quod in diversis gradibus creaturæ rationales instituerentur. 10. Adhuc, Si diversitas creaturæ corporalis respondet diversitateti creaturæ rationalis, pari ratione et uniformitati rationalium creaturarum responderet uniformitas naturæ corporalis. Fuisset ergo natura corporalis creata, etiam si diversa merita rationalis creaturæ non praecessissent, sed uniformis; fuisset igitur creata materia prima, quæ est omnibus corporibus communis, sed sub una tantum forma. Sunt autem in ipsa plures formæ in potentia. Remansisset igitur imperfecta, sola una ejus forma reducta in actum; quod non est divinæ conveniens bonitati. 11. Item, Si diversitas corporalis creaturæ sequitur diversos motus liberi arbitrii rationalis creaturæ, oportebit dicere quod causa quare est tantum unus sol in mundo sit quia tantum una rationalis creatura sic mota est per liberum arbitrium ut tali corpori mereretur adjungi. Hoc autem fuit a casu quod una tantum sic peccaret. Est igitur a casu quod sit unus sol in mundo, et non ad necessitatem corporalis naturæ. 12. Præterea, Quum creatura spiritualis non mereatur descendere nisi per peccatum (descendit autem a sua sublimitate, in qua invisibilis est, per hoc quod visibilibus corporibus unitur), videtur sequi quod visibilia corpora sint eis adjuncta propter peccatum; quod videtur propinquum errori Manichæorum, ponentium hæc visibilia ex malo principio processisse. Huic etiam opinioni auctoritas sacrae Scripturæ manifeste contradicit, quia, in singulis operibus visibilium creaturarum, tali modo loquendi utitur Moyses: Vidit Deus quod esset bonum, Gen. 1, passim; et postmodum de cunctis simul subjungit: Vidit Deus cuncta quæ fecerat, et erant valde bona, Gen. 1, 31. Ex quo manifeste datur intelligi quod creaturæ corporales et visibiles ideo sunt factæ quia bonum est eas esse, quod est consonum divinæ bonitati, et non propter aliqua creaturarum rationalium merita vel peccata. Videtur autem Origenes non perpendisse quod, quum aliquid non ex debito sed liberaliter damus, non est contra justitiam si inæqualia damus, nulla diversitate meritorum pensata, quum retributio merentibus debeatur; Deus autem, ut supra ostensum est (c. xxviii), ex nullo debito, sed ex mera liberalitate res in esse produxit; unde diversitas creaturarum diversitatem meritorum non præsupponit. Item, quum bonum totius sit melius quam bonum singularum partium, non est optimi factoris diminuere bonum totius, ut aliquarum partium augeat bonitatem; non enim aedificator fundamento tribuit eam bonitatem quam tribuit tecto, ne domum faciat ruinosam; factor igitur omnium Deus non faceret totum universum suo genere optimum, si faceret omnes partes aquales, quia multi gradus bonitatis in universo deessent, et sic esset imperfectum.
Caput 45
[lib.2.cap.45.n.1] CHAPTER XLV—The Real Prime Cause of the Variety of Creatures.
SINCE every agent intends to induce its own likeness in the effect, so far as the effect can receive it, an agent will do this more perfectly the more perfect itself is. But God is the most perfect of agents: therefore it will belong to Him to induce His likeness in creation most perfectly, so far as befits created nature. But creatures cannot attain to any perfect likeness of God so long as they are confined to one species of creature; because, since the cause exceeds the effect, what is in the cause simply and as one thing is found in the effect in a composite and manifold way, unless the effect be of the same species as the cause; which is impossible in the case before us, for no creature can be equal to God. Multiplicity therefore and variety was needful in creation, to the end that the perfect likeness of God might be found in creatures according to their measure.
2. As the things that are made of any material are contained in the potentiality of the material, so the things done by any agent must be in the active power of the agent. But the potentiality of the material would not
be perfectly reduced to actuality, if out of the material were made only one of those things to which the material is in potentiality. Therefore if any agent whose power extends to various effects were to produce only one of those effects, his power would not be so completely reduced to actuality as by making many. But by the reduction of active power to actuality the effect attains to the likeness of the agent. Therefore the likeness of God would not be perfect in the universe, if there was only one grade of all beings.
3. A creature approaches more perfectly to the likeness of God by being not only good itself, but able to act for the good of others. But no creature could do anything for the good of another creature, unless there were plurality and inequality among creatures, because the agent must be other than the patient and in a position of advantage (honorabilius) over it.
5. The goodness of the species transcends the goodness of the individual. Therefore the multiplication of species is a greater addition to the good of the universe than the multiplication of individuals of one species.
7. To a work contrived by sovereign goodness there ought not to be lacking the height of perfection proper to it. But the good of order in variety is better than the isolated good of any one of the things that enter into the order: therefore the good of order ought not to be wanting to the work of God; which good could not be, if there were no diversity and inequality of creatures. There is then diversity and inequality between creatures, not by chance, not from diversity of elements, not by the intervention of any (inferior) cause, or consideration of merit, but by the special intention of God, wishing to give the creature such perfection as it was capable of having.
Hence it is said, God saw all things that he had made, and they were very good (Gen. i, 31); and this after He had said of them singly, that they were good; because while things are good singly in their several natures, all taken together they are very good, because of the order of the universe, which is the final and noblest perfection of creation.
[lib.2.cap.45.n.1] Quæ sit prima causa distinctionis rerum secundum veritatem. (I, q. xlvii, a. i. et ii.) Ostendi autem ex prædictis potest quæ sit vere prima distinctionis rerum causa. 1. Quum enim omne agens intendat suam similitudinem in effectum inducere, secundum quod effectus capere po-test, tanto hoc agit perfectius quanto agens perfectius est; patet enim quod quanto aliquid est calidius tanto facit magis calidum, et quanto est aliquis melior artifex, tanto formam artis perfectius inducit in materiam. Deus autem est perfectissimum agens. Suam igitur similitudinem in rebus creatis ad eum pertinebat inducere perfectissime, quantum naturæ creatæ convenit. Sed perfectam Dei similitudinem non possunt consequi res creatæ secundum unam solam speciem creaturæ, quia quum causa excedat effectum, quod est in causa simpliciter et unite, in effectu inventur composite et multipliciter, nisi effectus pertingat ad speciem causæ; quod in proposito dici non potest; non enim creatura potest essè Deo aqualis. Oportuit igitur esse multiplicitatem et varietatem in rebus creatis, ad hoc quod inveniretur in eis Dei similitudo perfecta secundum modum suum. 2. Amplius, Sicut ea quæ fiunt ex materia, sunt in potentia materiae passiva, ita quæ fiunt ab agente oportet esse in potentia activa agentis. Non autem potentia passiva materiae perfectæ reduceretur in actum, si ex materia fieret unum tantum eorum ad quæ materia est in potentia. Ergo si aliquis agens cujus potentia est ad plures effectus faceret unum illorum tantum, potentia ejus non ita complete reduceretur in actum sicut quum facit plura. Per hoc autem quod potentia activa reducitur in actum, effectus consequitur similitudinem agentis. Ergo non esset perfecta Dei similitudo in universo, si esset unus tantum gradus omnium entium. Propter hoc igitur est distinctio in rebus creatis, ut perfectius Dei similitudinem consequantur per multa quam per unum. 3. Adhuc, Quanto aliquid in pluribus est Deo simile, tanto perfectius ad ejus similitudinem accedit. In Deo autem est bonitas et diffusio bonitatis in alia. Perfectius igitur accedit res creata ad Dei similitudinem, si non solum bona est, sed etiam ad bonitatem aliorum agere potest, quam si solum in se bona esset; sicut similius est soli quod lucet et illuminat quam quod lucet tantum. Non autem posset creatura ad bonitatem alterius creaturæ agere, nisi esset in rebus creatis pluralitas et inæqualitas; quia agens est aliud a patiente et honorabilius eo. Oportuit igitur, ad hoc quod in creaturis esset perfecta Dei imitatio, quod diversi gradus in creaturis invenirentur. 4. Item, Plura bona uno bono finito sunt meliora; habent enim hoc et adhuc amplius. Omnis autem creaturæ bonitas finita est; est enim deficiens ab infinita Dei bonitate. Perfectius est igitur universum creaturarum, si sunt plures quam si esset unus tantum gradus rerum. Summo autem Bono competit facere quod melius est. Ergo conveniens ei fuit ut plures faceret creaturarum gradus. 5. Adhuc, Bonitas speciei excedit bonitatem individui, sicut formale id quod est materiale. Magis igitur addit ad bonitatem universi multitudo specierum quam multitudo individuorum in una specie. Est igitur ad perfectionem universi pertinens, non solum quod multa sint individua, sed quod sint etiam diversæ rerum species, et per consequens diversi gradus in rebus. 6. Item, Omne quod agit per intellectum, repræsentat speciem sui intellectus in re facta; sic enim agens sibi per artem facit simile. Deus autem fecit creaturam ut agens per intellectum et non per necessitatem naturæ ut supra (c. xxxiii ostensum est). Species igitur intellectus divini repræsentatur in creatura per ipsum facta. Intellectus autem multa intelligens non sufficienter repræsentatur in uno tantum. Quum igitur intellectus divinus multa intelligat, ut probatum est (l. I, c. xlx-lv), perfectius seipsum repræsentat, si plures universorum graduum creaturas producat, quam si unum tantum produxisset. 7. Amplius, Øperi a summo Bono artifice facto non debuit deesse summa perfectio. Sed bonum ordinis diversorum est melius quolibet illorum ordinatorum per se sumpto; est enim formale respectu singularium sicut perfectio totius respectu partium. Non debuit ergo bonum ordinis operi Dei deesse. Hoc autem bonum esse non posset, si diversitas et inæqualitas creaturarum non fuisset. Est igitur diversitas et inæqualitas in rebus creatis, non a casu, non ex materiae diversitate, non propter interventum aliquarum causarum vel meritorum, sed ex propria Dei intentione, perfectionem creaturæ dare volentis, quaem possibile erat eam habere. Hinc est quod dicitur: Vidit Deus cuncta quæ fecerat, et erant valde bona, Gen. 1, 34, quum de singulis dixisset quod sunt bona; quia singula quidem sunt in suis naturis bona, simul autem omnia valde bona propter ordinem universi, qui est ultima et nobilissima perfectio in rebus.
Caput 46
[lib.2.cap.46.n.1] CHAPTER XLVI—That it was necessary for the Perfection of the Universe that there should be some Intellectual Natures
THIS then being the cause of the diversity among creatures, it remains now to treat of the several distinct creatures themselves as we proposed to do in the third part of this book (Chap. ). And we will show first that by the disposition of Divine Providence assigning perfection to creatures in the way best befitting them, it was consonant with reason that some intellectual creatures should be placed at the head of creation.
5. Nothing else moves God to the production of creatures but His own goodness, which He has wished to communicate to other beings according to the manner of their assimilation to Himself (B. I, Chap. ). Now the likeness of one thing may be found in another in two ways: in one way in point of natural being, as the likeness of heat is found in the body heated; in another way in point of knowledge, as the likeness of fire (perceived) is in sight or touch. In order then that the likeness of God might be in creatures
in such modes as were possible, it was necessary that the divine goodness should be communicated to creatures, not only by likeness in being, but also by likeness in knowing. But mind alone can know the divine goodness. Therefore there needed to be intelligent creatures.
6. In all comely arrangements of things, the attitude of the secondary to the last imitates the attitude of the first to all, as well secondary as last, though the imitation is not always perfect. Now God comprehends in Himself all creatures (B. I, Chapp. , , ); and this is represented in material creatures, although in another way: for the higher body comprehends and contains the lower, according to quantitative extension; whereas God contains all creatures in simple mode, and not by quantitative extension. In order then that an imitation of God might not be wanting to creatures even in this mode of containing, there were made intellectual creatures to contain material creatures, not by any extension of quantity, but simply by mode of intelligence: for what is understood is in the mind that understands it, and is comprehended in its intellectual activity.
[lib.2.cap.46.n.1] Quod oportuit, ad perfectionem universi, esse aliquas naturas intellectuales. (I, q. v, a.i.) Hac igitur exsistente causa diversitatis in rebus, restat nunc de ipsis rebus distinctis prosequi, quantum ad fidei veritatem pertinet: quod erat tertium a nobis propositorum. Et ostendemus primo quod, ex divina dispositione perfectionem rebus creatis secundum suum modum optimum assignante, consequens fuit quod quædam creaturæ intellectuales fierent in summo rerum vertice constitutæ. 4. Tunc enim effectus maxime perfectus est quando in suum redit principium; A, B, C, D, etc.: « Repræsentaret. » unde et circulus inter omnes figuras, et motus circularis inter omnes motus, est maxime perfectus, quia in eis ad principium reditur. Ad hoc igitur quod universum creaturarum ultimam perfectionem consequatur, oportet creaturas ad suum redire principium. Redeunt autem ad suum principium singulæ et omnes creaturæ, in quantum sui principii similitudinem gerunt secundum suum esse et suam naturam, in quibus quamdam perfectionem habent; sicut et omnes effectus tunc maxime perfecti sunt quando maxime similantur causæ agenti, ut domus quando maxime similatur arti, et ignis quando maxime similatur generanti. Quum igitur intellectus Dei creaturarum productionis principium sit, ut supra (c. xxiii et xxiv) ostensum est, necesse fuit, ad creaturarum perfectionem, quod aliquæ creaturæ essent intelligentes. 2. Amplius, Perfectio secunda in rebus addit supra primam perfectionem. Sicut autem esse et natura rei consideratur secundum primam perfectionem, ita operatio secundum perfectionem secundam. Oportuit igitur, ad consummatam universi perfectionem, esse aliquas creaturas quæ in Deum redirent, non solum secundum naturæ similitudinem, sed etiam per operationem; quæ quidem non potest esse nisi per actum intellectus et voluntatis, quia nec ipse Deus aliter erga seipsum operationem habet. Oportuit igitur, ad perfectionem optimam universi, esse aliquas creaturas intellectuales. 3. Adhuc, Ad hoc quod perfecte divinæ bonitatis representatio per creaturas fieret, oportuit, ut supra (c. xlv) ostensum est, non solum quod res bonæ fierent, sed etiam quod ad aliorum bonitatem agerent. Assimilatur autem perfecte aliquid alteri in agendo, quando non solum est eadem species actionis, sed etiam idem modus agendi. Oportuit igitur, ad summam rerum perfectionem, quod essent aliquæ creaturæ quæ agerent hoc modo quo Deus agit. Ostensum est autem supra (c. xxiii) quod Deus agit per intellectum et voluntatem. Oportuit igitur aliquas creaturas esse intelligentes et volentes. 4. Amplius, Similitudo effectus ad causam agentem attenditur secundum formam effectus qui præexsistit in agente; 1 A, B, C, D, E, F omittunt: « Deus. » 2 A, B, C, D omittunt: « Etiam. » — in corporalibus creaturis, licet per alium modum; semper enim invenitur superius corpus comprehendens et continens inferius, tamen secundum extensionem quantitatis, quum Deus omnes creaturas simplici modo, et non quantitatis extensione, contineat. Ut igitur, nec in hoc modo continendi, Dei imitatio creaturis deesset, factæ sunt creaturæ intellectuales quæ creaturas corporales continerent, non extensione quantitatis, sed simpli-citer per modum intelligibilem; nam quod intelligitur est in intelligente, et ejus intellectuali operatione comprehenditur.
Caput 47
[lib.2.cap.47.n.1] CHAPTER XLVII—That Subsistent Intelligences are Voluntary Agents
GOOD is what all things yearn after, and in all beings there is a craving (appetitus) for good. In beings unendowed with any sort of cognition, this craving is called ‘physical appetite’ (appetitus naturalis). In beings that have sensitive cognition it is called ‘animal appetite,’ and is divided into ‘concupiscible’ and ‘irascible.’ In intelligent beings it is called the ‘intellectual’ or ‘rational appetite,’ otherwise the ‘will.’
[lib.2.cap.47.n.1] Quod substantiae intellectuales sint volentes. (I, q. lix, a. i.) Has autem substantias intellectuales necesse est esse volentes. 1. Inest enim omnibus appetitus boni, quum bonum sit quod omnia appetunt, ut philosophi tradunt, Ethic. I, c. i. Hujus-modi autem appetitus, in his quidem quæ cognitione carent, dicitur naturalis appetitus, sicut dicitur quod lapis appetit esse deorsum; in his autem quæ cognitionem sensitivam habent, dicitur appetitus animalis, qui dividitur in concupiscibilem et irascibilem; in his vero quæ intelligunt, dicitur appetitus intellectualis seu rationalis, qui est voluntas. Substantiæ igitur intellectuales creatæ habent voluntatem. 2. Adhuc, Id quod est per aliud reducitur ad id quod est per se, tanquam in prius; unde, et secundum Philosophum, Physic. VIII, c. v, mota ab alio reducuntur in prima moventia seipsa; in syllogismis etiam, conclusiones, quæ sunt notæ ex aliis, reducuntur in prima principia, quæ sunt nota per seipsa. Inveniuntur autem in substantiis creatis quædam quæ non agunt seipsa ad operandum, sed aguntur vi naturæ, sicut inanimata, plantæ et animalia bruta; non enim est in eis agere et non agere. Oportet ergo quod fiat reductio ad alia prima quæ seipsa agant ad operandum. Prima autem in rebus creatis sunt substantiae intellectuales, ut supra (c. xlvi) ostensum est. Hæ igitur substantiae se agunt ad operandum. Hoc autem est proprium voluntatis, per quam substantia aliqua est domina sui actus utpote in ipsa existens, agere et non agere. Substantiæ igitur intellectuales creatæ habent voluntatem. 3. Amplius, Principium cujuslibet operationis est forma per quam aliquid est actu, quum omne agens agat in quantum est actu. Oportet igitur quod secundum modum formæ sit modus operationis consequentis formam. Forma igitur quæ non est ab ipso agente per formam, causat operationem cujus agens non est dominus. Si qua vero fuerit forma quæ sit ab eo qui per ipsam operatur, etiam consequentis operationis dominium habebit. Formæ autem naturales, ex quibus sequuntur motus et operationes naturales, non sunt ab his quorum sunt formæ, sed ab exterioribus agentibus totaliter, quum per formam naturalem unumquodque habeat esse in sua natura; nihil autem potest sibi esse causa essendi; et ideo quæ moventur naturaliter, non movent seipsa; non enim grave movet seipsum deorsum, sed generans quod dedit ei formam. In animalibus etiam brutis, formæ sensatæ vel imaginatæ moventes non sunt adinventæ ab ipsis animalibus brutis, sed sunt receptæ in eis ab exterioribus sensibilibus quæ in sensum agunt et dijudicatæ per naturalem aestimationem; unde, licet quodammodo dicantur movere seipsa, in quantum eorum una pars est movens et alia est mota, tamen ipsum movere non est eis ex seipsis, sed partim ex exterioribus sensatis et partim a natura; in quantum enim appetitus movet membra, dicuntur seipsa movere, quod habent supra inanimata et plantas; in quantum vero ipsum appetere sequitur de necessitate in eis ex formis acceptis per sensum et judicium naturalis aestimationis, non sibi sunt causa quod moveantur; unde non habent dominium sui actus. Forma autem intellecta, per quam substantia intellectualis operatur, est ab ipso intellectu, utpote per ipsum concepta et quodammodo excogitata, ut patet de forma artis quam artifex concipit et excogitat, et per eam operatur. Substantiæ igitur intellectuales seipsas agunt ad operandum, ut habentes suæ operationis dominium; habent igitur voluntatem. 4. Item, Activum oportet esse proportionatum passivo et motivum mobili. Sed 1 In cod. Bergom. D. Ucelli male legit: « Forma entis. », etc. et cod. Bergom. in habentibus cognitionem, vis apprehensiva se habet ad appetitivam sicut motivum ad mobile; nam comprehensum per sensum vel imaginationem vel intellectum, movet appetitum intellectualem vel animalem. Apprehensio autem intellectiva non determinatur ad quædam, sed est omnium; unde et de intellectu possibili Philosophus dicit, De Anima, III, c. v et vIII, quod « est quo est omnia fieri. » Appetitus igitur intellectualis substantiæ est ad omnia se habens. Hoc autem est proprium voluntatis ut ad omnia se habeat; unde et Philosophus dicit, Ethic. III, c. iv, quod est possibilium et impossibilium. Substantiæ igitur intellectuales habent voluntatem.
Caput 48
[lib.2.cap.48.n.1] CHAPTER XLVIII—That Subsistent Intelligences have Free Will
THEY must be free, if they have dominion over their own acts.
A free agent is an agent that is cause of its own action (sui causa, sibi causa agendi). Agents that are determined (moventur) and act only inasmuch as they are determined by others, are not causes of their own acts. Only self-determining agents (moventia seipsa) have liberty of action; and these alone are guided in their action by judgement. A self-determining agent is made up of two elements, one determining and another determined. The element determined is the appetite; and that is determined either by intellect, or by phantasy, or by sense: for to these powers it belongs to judge. Of such self-determining agents, those alone judge freely which determine their own judgement. But no faculty of judging determines its own judgement unless it reflects upon its own act. If then it is to determine itself to judge, it must know its own judgement; and that knowledge belongs to intellect alone. Irrational animals then have a sort of free determination, or action, but not a free judgement (sunt quodammodo liberi quidem motus, sive actionis, non autem liberi judicii): while inanimate things, being dependent for their every determination
on things other than themselves, have not so much as free action, or determination. On the contrary, intelligent beings have not only free action, but also free judgement, which is having free will.
3. An apprehension becomes a motive according as the thing apprehended takes the form of something good or suitable. In agents that determine their own movements, the outward action goes upon some judgement pronouncing a thing good or suitable according as it is apprehended. If the agent pronouncing the judgement is to determine himself to judge, he must be guided to that judgement by some higher form or idea in his apprehension. This idea can be no other than the universal idea (ipsa ratio) of goodness or fitness, by aid whereof a judgement is formed of any given definite good, fit, or suitable thing. Therefore those agents alone determine themselves to judge, which have this general concept of goodness or fitness, — that is to say, only intelligent agents. Therefore intelligent agents alone determine themselves, not only to act, but also to judge. They therefore alone are free in judging, which is having free will.
4. No movement or action follows from a general concept except by the medium of some particular apprehension, as all movement and action deals with particulars. Now the understanding naturally apprehends the universal. In order then that movement or any manner of action may follow upon the intellectual apprehension, the universal concept of the understanding must be applied to particular objects. But the universal contains in potentiality many particular objects. Therefore the application of the intellectual concept may be made to many divers objects; and consequently the judgement of the understanding about things to be done is not determined to one thing only.
5. Some agents are without liberty of judgement, either because they have no judgement at all, as is the case with things that have no knowledge, as stones and plants, or because they have a judgement naturally determined to one effect, as irrational animals. For by natural reckoning the sheep judges that the wolf is hurtful to it, and on this judgement flies from the wolf. But whatever agents have their judgement of things to be done not determined by nature to one effect, they must have free will. Such are all intelligent agents; for the understanding apprehends, not only this or that good, but good itself in general. Hence, since it is through the idea in apprehension
that the understanding moves the will; and in all things the motive, or moving power, and the object moved must be proportioned to one another; it follows that the will of an intelligent subsistent being is not determined by nature except to good in general. Whatever therefore is presented to the will under the specific notion of good (sub ratione boni), the will may incline to it, without let or hindrance from any natural determination to the contrary. Therefore all intelligent agents have free will, arising out of the judgement of the understanding; and free will is defined ‘a free judgement on the matter of a specific notion, or general concept.’
[lib.2.cap.48.n.1] Quod substantiæ intellectuales sunt liberi arbitrii in agendo 1. (I, q. lix, a. iii.) Ex hoc autem apparet quod prædictæ substantiæ sunt liberi arbitrii in operando. 1. Quod enim arbitrio agant, manifestum est ex eo quod per cognitionem intellectivam judicium habent de operandis. Libertatem autem necesse est eas habere, si habent dominium sui actus, ut ostensum est (c. xLVII). Sunt igitur prædictæ substantiæ liberi arbitrii in agendo. 2. Item, Liberum est quod sui causa est; quod ergo non est sibi causa agendi non est liberum in agendo. Quæ-cumque autem non moventur neque agunt nisi ab aliis mota, non sunt sibiipsis causa agendi. Sola ergo moventia seipsa libertatem in agendo habent, et hæc sola judicio agunt; nam movens seipsum dividitur in movens et motum; motum autem est appetitus ab intellectu vel phantasia aut sensu motus, quorum est judicare. Horum igitur hæc sola libere judicant, quæcumque in judicando seipsa movent. Nulla autem potentia judicans, seipsam ad judicandum movet, nisi supra actum suum reflectatur; oportet enim, si se ad judicandum agit, quod suum judicium cognoscat; quod quidem solius intellectus est. Sunt igitur animalia irrationalia quodammodo liberi quidem motus sive actionis, non autem liberi judicii; inanimata autem, quæ solum ab aliis moventur, neque 2 aut liberæ actionis sunt, aut motus; intellectualia vero, non solum 3 actionis, sed etiam liberi judicii; quod est liberum arbitrium habere. 3. Adhuc, Forma apprehensa est principium movens, secundum quod apprehenditur sub ratione boni vel convenientis; actio enim exterior, in moventibus seipsa, procedit ex judicio quo judicatur aliquid esse bonum vel conveniens per formam prædictam. Si igitur judicans ad judicandum seipsum moveat, oportet quod per aliquam altiorem formam apprehensam se moveat ad judicandum; quæ quidem esse non potest nisi ipsa ratio boni vel convenientis, per quam de quolibet determinato bono vel convenienti judicatur. Illa igitur sola se ad judicandum movent quæ communem boni vel convenientis rationem apprehendunt. Hæc autem sunt sola intellectualia. Sola igitur intellectualia se, non solum ad agendum, sed etiam ad judicandum movent; sola igitur ipsa sunt libera in judicando; quod est liberum arbitrium habere. 4. Amplius, A conceptione universali non sequitur motus et actio, nisi mediante particulari apprehensione; eo quod motus et actio erga particularia est. Intellectus autem naturaliter est universalium apprehensius. Ad hoc igitur quod ex apprehensione intellectus sequatur motus aut quæcumque actio, oportet quod universalis intellectus conceptio applicetur ad particularia. Sed universale continet in potentia multa particularia. Potest igitur applicatio conceptionis intellectualis fieri ad plura et diversa. Judicium igitur intellectus de agibilibus non est determinatum ad unum tantum; habent igitur omnia intellectualia liberum arbitrium. 5. Præterea, Judicii libertate carent aliqua, vel propter hoc quod nullum habent judicium, sicut quæ cognitione carent, ut lapides et plantæ; vel quia ha-, etc., et cod. Bergom.: « In agendo. », etc. — Cod. Berg.: « Neque liberæ actionis sunt, aut motus. » — XII. bent judicium a natura determinatum ad unum, sicut irrationalia animalia; naturali enim aestimatione judicat ovis lupum sibi nocivum, et ex hoc judicio fugit ipsum; similiter autem in aliis. Quæcumque igitur habent judicium de agendis non determinatum ad unum a natura, necesse est liberi arbitrii esse. Hujusmodi autem sunt omnia intellectualia; intellectus enim apprehendit non solum hoc vel illud bonum, sed ipsum bonum commune; unde, quum intellectus per formam apprehensam moveat voluntatem, in omnibus autem movens et motum oporteat esse proportionata, voluntas substantiæ intellectualis non erit determinata a natura nisi ad bonum commune. Quidquid igitur offertur sibi sub ratione boni, poterit voluntas inclinari in illud, nulla determinatione naturali in contrarium prohibente. Omnia igitur intellectualia liberam voluntatem habent ex judicio intellectus venientem; quod est liberum arbitrium habere, quod diffinitur « liberum de ratione judicium »
Caput 49
[lib.2.cap.49.n.1] CHAPTER XLIX—That Subsistent Intelligence is not Corporeal
IF the understanding were a corporeal substance, intelligible ideas of things would be received in it only as representing individual things. At that rate, the understanding would have no conception of the universal, but only of the particular, which is manifestly false.
4. If the understanding were a corporeal substance, its action would not transcend the order of corporeal things, and therefore it would understand nothing but corporeal things, which is manifestly false, for we do understand many things that are not corporeal.
5. There can be no infinite power in any finite body: but the power of the understanding is in a manner infinite in the exercise of intelligence: for it knows the universal, which is virtually infinite in its logical extension.
7 and 8. Of no bodily substance is the action turned back upon the agent. But the understanding in its action does reflect and turn round upon itself: for as it understands an object, so also it understands that it does understand, and so endlessly.
Hence Holy Scripture calls intelligent subsistent beings by the name of ‘spirits,’ using of them the style which it is wont to use for the incorporeal Deity, according to the text, God is a Spirit (John iv, 24).
Hereby is excluded the error of the ancient natural philosophers, who admitted no substance but corporeal substance: which opinion some have endeavoured to foist into the Christian faith, saying that the soul is an effigy of the body, a sort of outline contour of the human body.
[lib.2.cap.49.n.1] Quod substantia intellectualis non sit corpus. (I. q. i, a. i.) Ex praemissis autem ostenditur quod nulla substantia intellectualis est corpus. 1. Nullum enim corpus invenitur aliquid continere nisi per commensurationem quantitatis; unde, et si se $^1$ toto totum aliquid continet, et partem parte continet, majorem quidem majore, minorem autem minore. Intellectus autem non comprehendit rem aliquam intellectam per aliquam quantitatis commensurationem, quum $^2$ se toto intelligat et comprehendat totum et partem, majora in quantitate et minora. Nulla igitur substantia intelligens est corpus. 2. Amplius, Nullum corpus potest alterius corporis formam substantialem recipere, nisi per corruptionem suam formam amittat. Intellectus autem non corrumpitur, sed magis perficitur per hoc quod recipit formas omnium corporum; perficitur enim intelligendo; intelligit autem secundum quod habet in se formas intellectorum. Nulla igitur substantia intellectualis est corpus. 3. Adhuc, Principium diversitatis individuorum ejusdem speciei est divisio materiæ secundum quantitatem; forma enim hujus ignis a forma illius ignis non differt, nisi per hoc quod est in diversis partibus in quas materia dividitur, nec aliter quam divisione quantitatis sine qua substantia est indivisibilis. Quod autem recipitur in corpore recipitur in eo secundum quantitatis divisionem. Ergo forma non recipitur in corpore nisi ut individuata. Si igitur intellectus esset corpus, formæ rerum intelligibiles non reciperentur in eo nisi ut individuatæ. Intelligit autem intellectus res per formas earum, quas penes se habet. Non ergo intellectus intelligit universalia, sed solum particularia; quod patet esse falsum. Nullus igitur intellectus est corpus. 4. Item, Nihil agit nisi secundum suam speciem, eo quod forma est principium agendi in unoquoque. Si igitur intellectus sit corpus, actio ejus ordinem corporum non excedet. Non igitur intelligit nisi corpora. Hoc autem patet esse falsum; intelligimus enim multa quæ non sunt corpora. Intellectus igitur non est corpus. 5. Adhuc, Si substantia intelligens est corpus, aut est finitum aut infinitum; corpus autem esse infinitum actu est impossibile, ut in tertio Physicorum, c. v, et primo Cæli, c. vii, probatur; est igitur finitum corpus, si corpus esse ponitur. Hoc autem est impossibile. In nullo enim corpore finito potest esse potentia infinita, ut supra (l. I, c. xiii) probatum est. Potentia autem intellectus est quodammodo infinita in intelligendo; in infinitum enim intelligit species numerorum augendo, et similiter species figurarum et proportionum; cognoscit etiam universale, quod est virtute infinitum secundum suum ambitum; continet enim individua, quæ sunt potentia infinita. Non est igitur intellectus corpus. 6. Amplius, Impossibile est duo corpora se invicem continere, quum continens excedat contentum. Duo autem intellectus se invicem continent et comprehendunt, dum unus alium intelligit. Intellectus igitur non est corpus. 7. Item, Nullius corporis actio reflectitur super agentem; ostensum est enim, $^1$ — $^2$, etc. — In quibusdam Edit.: « Quum in se toto. » in septimo Physicorum, c. 1 et octavo, c. 1v, quod nullum corpus a seipso movetur nisi secundum partem, ita scilicet quod una pars ejus sit movens, alia mota. Intellectus autem supra seipsum agendo reflectitur; intelligit enim seipsum, non solum secundum partem, sed secundum totum. Non est igitur corpus. 8. Adhuc, Actus corporis ad actionem non terminatur, nec motus ad motum, ut in quinto Physicorum, c. 11, probatum est. Actio autem substantiae intelligentis ad actionem terminatur; intellectus enim, sicut intelligit rem, ita intelligit se intelligere; et sic in infinitum. Substantia igitur intellectus non est corpus. Hinc est quod sacra Scriptura substantias intellectuales Spiritus nominat; per quem modum consuevit Deum incorporeum nominare, secundum illud: Spiritus est Deus, Joann. iv, 24. Dicitur autem: Est enim in illa (scilicet divina sapientia) spiritus intelligentiæ, Sap. vii, 22, qui capiat omnes Spiritus intelligibiles. Per hoc autem excluditur error antiquorum naturalium, qui nullam substantiam nisi corpoream esse ponebant; unde et animam credebant esse corpus, vel ignem, vel aerem, vel aquam, vel aliquid hujusmodi; quam quidem opinionem in fidem christianam quidam inducere conati sunt, dicentes animam esse corpus effigiatum, sicut corpus exterius figuratum.
Caput 52
[lib.2.cap.52.n.1] CHAPTER LII—That in Created Subsistent Intelligences there is a Difference between Existence and Essence
THOUGH subsistent intelligences are not corporeal, nor compounded of matter and form, nor existent as material forms in matter, still it must not be thought that they come up to the simplicity of the being of God: for there is found in them a certain composition, inasmuch as existence (esse) and essence (quod est) is not in them the same.
4. Whatsoever reality subsists of and by itself, nothing attaches to that reality except what is proper to being as being. For what is said of any reality not as such, does not belong to that reality otherwise than accidentally by reason of the subject: hence, considered apart from the subject in a particular case, the attribute does not belong to that reality at all. Now to be ‘caused by another’ does not belong to being, as being: otherwise every being would be caused by another, which is impossible (B. I, Chap. ) Therefore that existence which is being of itself and by itself, must be uncaused. No caused being therefore is its own existence.
5. The substance of every reality is a being of itself and not through another. Hence actual illumination is not of the substance of air, because it accrues to it through another. But to every created reality existence accrues through another, otherwise it would not be a creature. Therefore of no created substance is it true to say that its existence is its substance.
Hence in Exodus iii, 14, existence is assigned as the proper name of God, He who is: because it is proper to God alone that His substance is none other than His existence.
[lib.2.cap.52.n.1] Quod in substantiis intellectualibus differt esse et quod est. (I, D. iii, q. i.) Non est autem opinandum, quamvis substantiae intellectuales non sint cor- 1 — « Intelligendum quod est mutabilitas secundum formam realem, alia secundum situm: et utraque requirit materiam. Alia est secundum accidens, quarta in non esse: et utraque potest esse sine materia. Dato enim quod Deus crearet aliquam formam simplicem subsistentem, illa posset mutari in non esse, et posset mutari secundum accidens secundum diversas perfectiones quas posset recipere. Quando ergo dicitur quod omne mutabile habet materiam, verum est de primis duabus, quia est ibi aliqua receptio et aliqua transmutatio secundum affectiones et cogitationes. Qui in intellectu et in substantiis separatis volunt ponere veram materiam, licet non sit ejusdem rationis cum materia generabilium, non videntur recte accipere rationem materiae. Nam materia id quod est est in potentia. Cum ergo ipsa substantia intellectualis sit in potentia ad hujusmodi accidentalem transmutationem, ipsa tota debet dici materia sive subjectum hujus receptionis et transmutationis, sicut secundum Commentatorem corpus cæleste ponitur corpus simplex sine materia; ipsum tamen, quia in potentia est ad diversa ubi, habet rationem subjecti. Et sic verum est quod angelus non est purus actus, sed est in potentia ad cogitationes et affectiones varias. Ex hoc tamen nullo modo sequitur in eo esse materiam quæ sit aliqua natura præter formam angeli a qua habeat esse in actu. Nam si sic, virtute divina possent hujusmodi duæ essentiae, scilicet forma et materia angeli, ab invicem separari, et in materia hujusmodi forma alia introduci, quod videtur absurdum. Sunt ergo angeli aliquo modo compositi, licet non ex materia et forma, scilicet ex essentia et esse, vel secundum aliquos est forma partis quæ est alteraceptio formarum in intellectu non sit receptio formarum in materia, impossibile est quod intellectus sit forma materialis. 4. Præterea, Dicere quod intellectus sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma; differt autem solum secundum nomen: nam primo modo diceretur intellectus forma ipsa compositi, secundo vero diceretur intellectus ipsum compositum. Si igitur falsum est intellectum esse compositum ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intellectus sit compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intel ut compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intel compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intel compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intel compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intel compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intel compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intel compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intel compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intel compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intel compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intel compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intel compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intel compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intel compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intel compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intel compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intel compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intel compositus ex materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ad te qu sit materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur guen tu sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intel compositus ex materia et materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intel compositus ex materia et materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intel compositus ex materia et materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit sit forma non subsistens, sed materia immersa, idem est secundum rem ac si dicatur quod intel compositus ex materia et materia et forma, falsum erit quod sit sittera et materia et forma, falsum erit quod sittera et materia ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera ettera 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etween, orien, etween, etween, orween, etween, etween, orween, orween, orien, orien, orien, etween, orween, orween, orien, orien, orien, orween, orween, orween, orween, orween, orween, orien, orien, orien, orien, orien, orien, orien, orien, or te undear, orte, orde, or teween, orde, orde, orde, orater, orde, orien, orn to be, to be, orien, orien, orien, orien, orien, orien, orien, orien, ori, orien, to be, to englengue, orien, ori ngue, orien, orien, to english, orien, orien de angue, orien, orien, orien, orien, orien, orien t. tribut, orien, orien for cis equate, orien forcute, orien forc, orien forcure, ori, ori de. tributal, ori de. re. re. re. re. nigure, te lit. nigure, orien forc, cistern, te, ori de, orien, orien forc, orien, ori engl, ori de, re. nice, ori, treat, ori, ori de, re. nike, orien forc, ori de necure, orien, orien forc, orien forc, ori, ori de, orien, orien forc, ori, orien, orien forc, orien forc, ori, orien, ori, orien, orien, orien, orien forc, orien, ori, ori, orien, orien, orien forc, orien forc, orien forc, orien forc, ori, ori, ori, orien forc, orien, orien, orien forc, orien forc, orien forc, orien forc, orien, orien, orien, ori, or, orien, orien, ori, ori, ori, ori, ori, ori, ori, ori, orte, or, orien, orien, orien forc, orien, orien, orien, orien, orien, orien, orien, orien, orien, orien, orien, orien, orien, orien tween, orien, orde, ori, orien, orde, or, orde, or, or, or, or, or, or, orien, orien, ori de, ori, ori de, ori de. nibre, ori de. re. nigre, ori de. ori de. nigre, ori de. nibsame, ori de. nate, ori, ori de. ori, orde, ori cis, ori tare, ori tibs, ori tang, ori tang, ori tau, ori de. nate, ori de. rever, ori de. rever, ori de. rever, ori de. nate, ori te, ori de. nate, ori te, ori de. nate, ori tec, ma, ori de. ori de. ori de. ori de. rever, ori de. re. rever, ori de. rever, ori te rever. rever. rever, ori rever, ori de. ortegra, ori te. te. te. te, tec. or, ori, ori ture, ori tent, ori tent, ori, ori tud, ori, ori, ori, ori tau, ori tent, ori tent, ori de. ori te, ori, ori ture, ori, ori tum, ori ture, ori tang, ori tent, ori tent, ori te, or te, ori te, ori te, ori tion, or, orn, ori tion, orn, ornature, orc, ornature, ornature, ornation, ornature, ornation, ornation, ornation, ornation, ornation, ornation of engsame, ornation of engsame, ornation of engest, ornation of engest, orc rever, orcute, orcure, orcute, orm, orbent, orbent, orbent, orbent, orbent, orbien de. orcute, orcute, orcute, orcute, orcute, orcute, orc, orcute, orcute, orcute, ori tion, orcute, orcute, orcute, ori tue, ori tent, ori tent, orcute, ori tion, ori tang, ornation of re. orcute, ori tig. nibsame, ori tri, ori tigure, ort, ori tionic, ori tent, oric, ori nature, ort, ori tet, ort, orc, orc, oric, ori tion, ori tion, ori tang, orc, ori tent, ori tion, ori tig, ort, oric, ori tigure, or iam, ori tri, oric, ori tion, ori nature, ori t, or re. nibsame, ori tue, ori t eng. utri, ori tion, ori, utri, ori tri, ori tent, ori, ori, ori, ori, ori, ori tibsame, ori enri, ori tig. ori, ori, ort, oricum, ort, ort, ort. ort, ort, orn, ori, ori tion, ori tion, ori tion of eni tion of engsame, orn, ori, ite, ort, ortion of eni tion of englite, utri, orcure, orcure, orcure, ori, ori nibsame, ori tec, ori nam, ornation of eni, ornature, ornation, ort, ort, ornature, ortic, utri, orcure, utri, ort, orcure, orticare, orticare, orn de. ornation of engs. ors. ors, orn. or engs. ors, ornature, ornature, ornature of engsame, ornation of engs. ort, utri de facto, ortion of eng. ornature of engs. or sign, ornation of artis, ornamentalities of engsame, ornature of artis, ornature, ornature, ornature, ornature, ors, ornature, ornature, ors. nibsame, ortion, ori englite, ori nature, ori nature, ori mita, ori, ori engue, ort, ort. nibsame, ornature, ornature, ori enclam, ornature, orte, orte, ori enclam, ori tecute, ornamentaliteit, oriature of engliter, ornature of them. rever. ornature of theiris, ornation of artis, orbent, orbent. (amit. tecima, ornation of engs. rever. ors. ornature of engl. ori mire, ortion of engl. (m. rever. (iature, ori, ori, ori, ori, ors, ori, ortion of englute, ortion of engl. etm. nature, ornature, oriature, oriature, oriature, ornamentaliteit. rever (iature, oriature, ortion of engl. orte, ors rever. ornation of engl. nature of englum, ors. nam. rever. orsame, ornature of engl. rever. ornature of englacute, uni deiature, ortion of engl. ortion of engl. rever. ornature of engl. iamet, oriature of engl. rever. rever. itmorita, orisnature ofri de rever. ita rever. rever. revering. ita rever. iamit. uniagit, uni de reverita, ita, ita rever. ornature, ita tigmentaliteit, ita, it. rever. orisnature, ita, ita, it. rever. oriata, teg. ita, it rever. ita rever. ita, ita, ors rever. ita, orisnature of engelite, oriagree, ornature, or. rever. oriagree, oriagit, orgrią, oriagit, oriagit. it. rever. ita rever. ita rever. itrevering. ita revering. revering. unitary, ors rever. oriagit, oriagit, ors rever. reverita. it. rever. or eng. ita rever. or sign, or sign, or iamit, or iamit, or iam, or. rever. rever, or iamit, or iamit, it. rever. or semita, or sign of englacute, or rever. oriable, it. ita. ita. ita ret. ita, or iamit, or iamit, oriata, ori, ornamentaliteit, oriagit, or rever. ornamentaliteit, oriure, org. or iamet, oris it. it. or eti, or eng. it. it. it. ita ret, org. it. it. rever. (iengue, or iamit, or engelicum, or生境生地生境上 art. ornamentaliteit, oriengue, or rever (i, ornamentaliteit, ori, or rever, orcute, orcute, or ea rever, or sign, ori, ori engel eti, ita, ita ret, ori de rever (iure, itmire, or iamit, ori, ori de rever revering. rever art. revering. it reveredent, ori sri, ornamentalus, or iamit. it is a rever, it. it. ornamental englishly, it. ori, it is the revered. it is the art. to be, it revered. revering, it revered. ori, it. it. rever. it. it is aure, or sign, or iamit, or ea rever, it. to rever, it is a rever rever de rever de revered. it. it. it. it. it. it. it. it. it. it is awe, ornamentaliteit. it is a rever rever, or iam. it is a re-ich is ae, or biom, or iam, ornamentaliteit, it is the eta, it. to be it. to engelite, it. it. to english texting it. ita reveria, as wells.It vera reveria reveria m. it is aurec to rever rever sibre uss. rever reveria, ornamentaliteit. it revering, or equit english ree, ornamentaliteited. to rever. revering, ornamentaliteit, or sibre, ornamentaliteit, or iam. reand its revering. revering. to the image, ornamentaliteit, it is a revering, or signing ea revering, it is a rever rever revering. it. oris equit, ornamental english rever de re. revering. to rever depta revering. revering. to revering, oris aweiburniun. reveriunichenticum, ornamentaliteit of etis turm. it is the image of english rever de rever de rever. iam. it. it. iam. it. iam. iamit. iamit. it. to medium, or ea re. iamit. it. iamit, or iam. iamit. iamit. iam. iam, it. i mire, it. iamit. iamet, ita revering, ite ming. iam, ornamental to be-164. it is aurec revering. it is aweed. iamitary to be iamitary to be iamitary of cation of c促动性 uss. iamitary to be i mire, iamit. iamit. to english revering. to rever. iamit, or iam. it. iam. iam. iam. iam. iam. iamide, or iam, or ei, or iam. i mire, or eibritic retent. iam. ium, or i ming. i相信地生地生地生地生地, it. iam, it. to be. iam. (i english rever (i mire, ornamental to be eni mire, or set of englishly i mire, or medium ofrium, or ea. it to be. iam. to reague, or iam, orangue to engel. to reagreeing, to be. to be iam, or iam. to englishly soa rever. it is aweed. to med理化地生地生时地生地生地生地生地生地生地生地生地, or digue. iam. iam. iam. iam. iam. iam, or iam. iam, or iam. iam. i m. iam. iam. i m. iam. to be. iam. M. iam. iam. iam. iam. to rever. iam. to re. iam. iam. iam. iam. to re angus. iam. to re angue. iam. engel or ang. iam. iam. iam. to re. i m. to reing. M. M. aweed ea. iam. to revering. iam. iam. iam to re angentive to revering. to revering. iam. iam. i mire. i mire, i mia meting. i siting. iam. i mire, or digt. i bultive to reagree, or digent. diague. di revering. di reveri, or digt. di revered. diagri es art. iam. eng. eng. eng. eng. eng. engli reague, or nibre, or iam to re ang to re angent. iis a rever. iing. iing. i de ree. iis ea. iudite. a revering. i i mirementary of eng. citriad. a revering. di reveri mire, or i nation of eng. i m. qui solt. i este of eng. i nation, i nigent. engel ori, org to reveri m. iam. i m. a reveria, or revering of engelia. citarying. a revering to revering. engel or reag. engel or reag. engel or reing. engel or reing. iam. iii, iplar. iplar. a regree to revering. a recking of engel or grium, or iam to recking. di recking. di recking. di rea reag. iam. iam. di re angent. engel or diging. eng. engel ori, i i, en angue. engli etri, enigent. iam. a reagriad. iam. iam. i i eni mordi reagreeing. di revering. di reveri ming. di revering. i相信地生地生地生地生地生地生地生地生地生地生地生地生地生地生地生地生地生地生地生地生地生地生地生地生地生地生地生地生地生地生地生 art. engli revering eud. unitarying. iam. iam. iad. i nation of engli re. i ei, ori nation, iam. engel ori rever. i e. iam. engel or eugi de rever. (i engel ori engel ori rever. iud说经方说经过 reed. iudite. iud说地生地生地生地生地生 art. iam. unitarying. engli revering, ori reed for theorying. eng. rever. eng. eng. eng. eng. iam. engel ori m. iam. i vertigentive to be. iam. iii toi ming, ori ming toi vertic art. iam. veri ming. ori mord, ori mordic rever. unitarying, ori eng. iam. iam. iam. iud rever. iii, ori re. i vertigentive to be notation ofri de notation of engli rever. it. iam. iam. iordia. iam. i in situing, iam. iam to re i m. iam. iam. (i de facto reing. a re gri, ornamental to be iam. unitary, orbri, or国境地生地生地生地生时生 iam to reing to reing to rei nation of engli reing to reug, iorded to reug, iord, iorded. dig. dig. iuding, iad. iordicula to reing edi eni, iii. iam. iam. i m. iam. i i m. iam. iam. iam. iam. iam. iam. iam pitig. iam. i相信地生 i相信地生 i. i相信地生 i相信地生地生 i相信地生地生过生过生 iii, i. i media. iii. iii. i. i. iii mati ming. iii matri, ori nation oferi, i相信地生过生过生时生过生过 re利地生时生财它生 i相信地生地生 ipl. i相信地生 iplar, ipl art oferi, ipl. iplar, iorded for iplar inted for iam pit iplar, iam iii说生过生财它生过生过生过 reing to rea rea reing to reing, iii. media. ipl ite. media. media. iuding. unitarying. iplighted. media. media. iuding. iud说生利地生eri, iplarentive to be iam. i media. media. icta de动生地生利地生地生地生 artifacting of artifacting iam. unitary and itsia reing, iam reing, i相信地生 i相信地生过 reing, iud reing, iuding, i. i media, i media. iud ori, i生 iuding, icti m. iam. ictri, iam. unitarying of eniing iudic art. iudic inted for iud, i cuiing, iud. a reing, i臣领地生门生经方生门位方说生门ing. art. a reverly so art. digi de re过生地生职地生利地生地生地生地生时生时生时生利地生利地生利地生利地生地生利地生地生利地生利地生利地生地生 art. to reing, iamia noting, iam. iam. iam. unitarying i孟oribriad. iam. unitarying, i media to be iud or eing iuding i生 ipl art. iuding. iud or NIC unitarying i cuiing, ipls eiing iudire, i cuiing. iam. iamia. iudia, iam, i media. iam, iam, ori. iam. unitarying. i生利地生地生利地生利地生利地生 ipl art. i media. iudia. eing iudire. i生利地利ed for ipl art. ipl arting, iri, iri, iri, ori. i media. i media. i media. iti. i verticly moistri re利地利地生利地利地生利地利地利地生利地生利地生 i vertic arti int. i vertic dig. eing i vertic art ofeiing, ipl ipl iplar, iig利地利i inted to i vertic art. iii. i vertic arti. iii. ipl arti vertic, i media, i media. iudia. iam, iamia reed to re方利细能生利位利位利, iam, i media, ipl art. ipl to. ipligra, ipl art. iig理ing, iii. ipl art. i. iii solic, i vertic, iigmented to. iam. iad to re利地生利地生利地生利地生 arti. iudire. iud reed to rei tributing iud, i diary ofeiing, ipl art of art of art of gri, i media. i media, i vertic place of unitary, i media. i media. i media. iam. iamia. iam, i生 arting, iadis notation of利地利地ing of arting, iig to. iudire. ipl to reed to reedar, i media. i media. media of givered for reing rever. i生利地生 i生利ed for art. i gri, i生 art. a revering, i gri, i media. ari. ari. ari, iudic reing, iudic reing, i media of theia. ari, iudia. ari reing, i media to reing, i media to. ari, i gri, ori of gri, oriing of gri, ori, iudite of gri, ori reveria. arting, i media. media. ari reing, i reing ofria. ari, i de gri, i gri. ectri, iuding. gri, i gri gri gri, i生 art. gri, i media. a revering, iud, i media. i media. i media to. i media. iudic art. i de reed for the i生 art. iud, ipli, i, i media. iud rea reed so reing, i media. i media, i media, iud ori, iud rea rea repting, iud, iud rea rea rea rea re力生 art. iud, i media. to. i gri reing, i gri, i gri, iordic art. i vertig to. to. to. to. to. to. ipli reing of thei, i media of gri, ori, ori gri, iad to. Ai gri, iadia, iadar, iadite of theia reed for artis notaribre of thei, iadite of rei, iadaris revering, ipl reed to rei, i, i de reed reing, i de reing ectri, i de revering of gri gri gri de rearing to. Ai de, i生地生地生地生 art rea reia rea rea rea rea rea rea rea re利地里生地生地生 ipl to rea re利地生地生地生 ipl to. ipl to. to. ipl to. ipl to. i方利地生地生地生地利地利地生地生地生 i生地生地生地生 i生地生地里生地生地生地生地生 iad. ipl to. to. iplig to. iplaced to. iud, iud, iad. ipls e, iad. i生地生门ary, iad说生门ing i, iud red to. to. to red to rea unitary to. to rea unitary to rete of thes to. iplaced to. to. to. ipl to. ieliai, i生时生 i臣位生地生 i生 i生 i生 i rectarying e, i生地利ed for art. iud reed for artis gri, i, i, i reed for art. i tei of thei, ori rei, ielia, i rectile of thei, i ti reed for art. iud reed for art. iota, i rectorying reed for dig业生地生 art. iudic media, i ad repting of theory of theory of theia rea rea red ford to. to. to. i recti tordic rea rearing, iud rea rei de iud rea rei定生地生地生地生 iudite of artis gri red to. i rectilemented to, iad to. to. iadite of theia re, i生 i red ints e, iud, iamia redire, iud, i门ary, i rectile re, i ree of thei, i, i e, iadic order, i, ictri, ori, ori tordic gri, ori, iota, iota, iota, iudic ree, iudic reed ford inted ford inted fordic digic rec order, iudic place of thei tig edi, i生 artic dig. iudicite of tegia, iordic dig, ori of theorying ectri, ictri, iudic reed for sutting for artic reed for dig业生 reed ford int. iad or dig业方里生 reed ford int e, iudia reed ford ints ree, i dentia re, i, i dentation, iudic reed for ectory of thei, i dentia, iadia reed to dig as it read notation, ori, ordeadly so reality of intere, ordeadia re, i, i, i, iad re, ielic place of thee, iplar sibre, iplaced for sibs ints e, i ints ints ints re, i ding nec ints ints ints inted inted notaric inted for sutri, i rective of thei int. ternic to re, ielia re, ori of thei of thei re, i, i, i, i inted for i dentia reed for dig rec ints ree, i dig业方利i int iamia re, iamia ree of theiplia, iad tos ints ints to ree, ori ints to reed for ectarate, i门形地界地利i int ectar appar dig恩ia ree of algic reeig ints intsia ree, iadia reed for iad pressi ints ints ints ints int e, i ints ints int ective of nec位方利地利地利地生时生时生 d职思iaipliplipliplipli, ipliplite, iadice of algi, iadic notic adi re, iad int戈 intia reedoc ints intia ree, iad notia re, iad notia, iadicly pro tis givered inti of iad inti ree, iota re, iad iad iad or iota media ree iad ori ree iota medi re, iad notice of iad noti re, iad notice of iota re, ori of iota ree iad iota re, iad notice gis gis re, iad iad to. AIA re, iad to iad ori re, iad iad iad iad iad iad iad iad iad noti, iad for tia re, iad to. iadicumia re, ori ree, ori nibre, iadic re, iadia re, ori re, iad ori nibre, iadia rei rede, iad to iad pressi int iad to e, iad notation of iad to. iad to. iad notice of iad notice of iad to re, ori re, ori ea re, i, i ints int e, i intia of iota re, ori int e, iad notation, iad notation, iad notation, iad notation, iad notation, iad notation, iad ints int re, iad ints int re, iad iad notation, orn int e, iad notice of e, i i int e, iotia re, iota, iad notation, int戈 intia re, i ints intia re, ori intia re, ori nibre, ori of iad for e, iad ori ints intsibre, inted for dia ree of iadia reeig ints intiai intib ori intia notation, iam iamia re, ier, i int职 doming re, iad iamia notation, iadia notation of iamia re, iad iamia notation, iad int e, iad iad e, ornibre, iadic nibre, i i nib ori intiai intia notation of iota re, iota re, iad intag int e, iadic unitary iad iad intedite, iad int dia notation, iad iad iadiai, iad intia notation, iad int e, iamia re, iadiai nibre, i i int戈 intiai nibre, iadia re, iadia re, iadia re, iad int e, i, iad for e, i, i, iad for e, iadia re, iad for e, iad int diai nib re, iadia notation, i, i, iadiai inted for iudicly soferedear, iadia, iadiai inti nibre, iad e, iudiai ints e, iadia re, iamia re, iamite, iad int e, iad iadicly nibre, iad toioc intsibre, iib nibre, iad e, iamitei re, iadia noting re, iadic noting iadic unitary iadicly e, iad iadia re, iadiai intag int戈 i inta inti re, iamite, acking re, iam, i, i, iam p arti nibre, iam p arti, i, i e, for e, for e, iam, iam p arti, iad iad e, i, iadia notation, iadia re, iad intia notation, iamidia re, ier, i, iad ori, quaric int e, int e, int e, int. int. inti, inti nibre, inted inted int e, int e, int e, i, int. e, ori nig int戈利ed for e, iamite, iamite, iamite of e, iamite of e, iad int. int e, re, re, iam id职 doming e, iamite of e, aquis notation, quiai nig inti nibreed e, i, i, i, ori nib re, iamitei nigented inti nigentiai re, i, i, i, i, i, i, re, re, i, i i nig int e, i, i, i i nibre, i, iamitei re, i, i, i, re, re, i, i, i, i, i, i, i, i, i, i i sub arti nigenting e, i, i, i, i, i, i, i i nigentation, i, i, i, i, i, i, i, ori nigentation, i, i, i, edia notation, elia re, e, i, i, i, i, i, i, i, iamis notation, i, i, i, i, i, iamitei to, i, i, i, i, for, i, i, i, i, re, i, ori nigentate, e, e, i, i, i, i, i, i, i, i, i, i, i, i, iamite, iamite, i, i, i, i digiplesting re, i, i, i, i, i, i, i, i, i, iamitei nibre, i, i, i i intiai int e, i, i, i, i, i, i intia int e, i i int e, iam re职地, iamitei nig int e, i, i, i, i, i, i i i i i te, i, inter,论 int e, i, i, inter e, edia re, i, ediai ree, i, i, i, edia notation, i, int e, i, i, int. int. i, intereis int e, int e, inter e, inter, intere, intere, iamit e, ori iudic uni, i, i, int. int re, i, i, i, i, int. i, int e, int e, i, i, i, i, i, edia re, int e, i, i, inter, i, i, int. intere, i, i, i, i, i, i, aquile int reed intia inte int e, i, e, e, i, i, i, i, i, i, i, i, i, i, i, i, i, i, i, i, i, i, i, i, i, i, i, i, i, i, i, i, i, i, i, i, i, inter e, inter e, ori dentis notation, ori noi, i, i, i, intere int. intere int. inter, inter, i, int. inte int. int. int. int. inte, i, i, i, i, inter, i, i, i, i, i, intere uni, i, intere uni te, inter, intere int. inter, inter, i, i, inter, i, i, i, i, i, iamitei int. inter, i, i, i, i, i, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, i, i, i, i inter, i, ori dentis notap inti to, i, i, i, i, quis int. inter, quaril int e, aquile int re职 dom, i, i, inter, int. inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, quaric uni int e, i, i, i, i, inter, aquile int. inter, inter, inter, int. inter, inter, i, i, inter, i, i, inter, inter, i, i, inter, inter, inter, inter, i, int. inter. inter, int. inter, int. it. inter, int e, int. int. artic uni dentis notation, inter, inter, uni uni uni int. inter, inter eit uni, inter, inter, inter, inter, 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i, intum int e, oriag int. inter, int. inter, int. intere. inter, inter, int e, int. intereudicut, int. inter, or, or, or, intereit, or, or, or, or, intere, intereud, inter, intere, intere, intere, e, e, intereun: intere, intereudicumit, intereudicun, intag intil or, it. to, inter note, intere int e, intere, inter, int. to, it. intere, inter, intere, intere, intere, intere, intere noti note, inter note, intere, i, intereud e, inter, inter, i, i, i, i, i, int. inter, int. intere, or, or, intere, inter, or, or, or, or, or, or, inter: to, intere un, inter. to, or, inter, intere, is not, inter, inter, inter, i, i, inter: to, i, i, i, i, i, i, int. inter: cane int. inter: cit not, or, or, or, or, or, or, int. to, inter, inter, inter, inter, i, i, i, i, i, i, i, i, inter, i, i, int. to, i, int. to, int, i, inter, int, int, int. to, int. note not e, int. not, inter, inter, int. to, int. inter, ium, int. inter, int艾it int. inter, i, i, i, i, i. inter, ium, i, i, int. inter, int. inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inteun, i, int. intere int, i, inter, inter, inter, intere not e, intere int. inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, int, ium int. inter, i, i. inter, ium int. inter, inter, inter, inter, ium, it, it. inter, inter, inter, inter, capitulicus articit, it. inter, int. inter, is ente not, int. inter, int. inter, actus cane int, or, inter, actus cane int. acte not, actus e, it, is not, or, int. not, int. not, intilic int, or, or, inter, inter, intilic un, intilic un, int. not, inter, int, inter, inter, int. inter, inter, int. inter, inter, inter, inter, or, or, or, or, or, and e, or, or, or, or, or, or, or, or, actus eit, inter, actus e, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, int, inticus. inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, or, inter, or, or, or, inter, inter, intere int, inter, inter. inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, or, or, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, it. inter is not, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, actus. to, or, or, inter, or, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, it.ut, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, or, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, or, or, or, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter. inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter. inter, inter, inter. inter einiticus int, inter. inter, inter einiticus. inter i catus. inter einitic int. inter einitic int. inter iticus. inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, or, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, quilic int, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, or, inter, inter, inter isulticum, inter, inter, intere int. inter, or, or, oriag intic inticut, inter it. inter itic int, inter, inter isulticum, intere int, inter iticuscriptedictum, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter ein to, inter, inter, inter, inter, or, ori, inter, or, or, or, acte int, ori certus re, or, or, oriom, itilicum, islam, inter, islam, intereun, intereun, intere int, intere int, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, intereun, intereun, inter, inter, inter, or, or, intereun, inter, intereun, intere un, quic int, inter, actus. inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, intereun, intereunicum, inter, inter, inter, inter, intereun, intereun, cu, quicum, inter, inter, intereudicut, inter, cuit, quicut, intereun, inter, inter, inter, inter, intereun, intereun, inter, inter, inter, inter, inter, intereun, inter, intereun, inter, inter, intereun, it. 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un, inter in, intere quic intere un, inter un, intere un, intere un, intere un, inter. inter reus inter reus. intere int, inter reus intereus. inter reus. intereus. inter reus. inter reus. intere int, intere un, inter. inter生, intere in, intereun, inter reus. intere un, inter生, intere un, inter生, intere int, inter reus. intere int, inter. inter. intere intere un, intere int, inter. inter生 intereut, intere un, intere un, inter reus. inter reeun, intere int, inter. inter. inter生, inter reus inter生, intere un, inter reus int, inter reus. un, inter reus. intereus. un, inter reus. inter reus. intere un, intere un, inter生 intere un, inter生 intere quen, inter reus. interequen, intere un, inter reus. inter reus. intere in, intere un, intere un, intere un, inter reus. inter, intere un, inter, inter reum, inter acte in, intere. intere in, intere un, intere un, un, inter生 intere un, inter, inter, inter, un, intere un, un, unit. inter, inter reus. inter reus. un, intere un, un, inter, un, inter生 inter acte un, un, un, un, inter生, interes int, inter, inter, un, inter acte un, un, inter acte inelicum, inter reus. inter生 inter reum, inter acte un, inter生 interes int, inter. un, un, un, intereut, inter inicum, un, inter un, un, quicum, quicus. un, quaricut, un, un, un, un, un, un, intere. un, un, un, un, quicus. un, inter生 un, un, intereun, inter reum, un, intereun, intere un, inter. interes int, inter. un, un, un, un, interes un, un, un, intere un, interes int, inter reus. inter. inter reus. un, un, inter reus. un, inter alicus. un, interes un, inter revering intere un, inter in, inter re intere un, inter, inter reus. un, inter reicus. un, un, un, un, inter生 interi un, un, quicus. un, interi un, intere un, inter revering inter reus. un, un, interes un, intere quenit, intere. intere. quicus.所. quicus. inter un, inter tion, quicut, quin, quicus. quicus. ilicus. quicus. quicus. inter rei cert un, quicus. inter reicus. inter re业 securis quicus. un, inter re业 securis un, inter reum. inter interes int, intere. intere. un, inter reum, inter reus. un, inter reus. inter. interescripted int, inter reum, inter. inter. inter. inter. inter. inter inter inter. inter. inter reus. interescripted int, intere. inter reus. interes quicus. poreæ nec ex materia et forma compositæ nec in materia existentes sicut formæ materiales, quod propter hoc divinæ simplicitati adæquentur. 4. Invenitur enim in eis aliqua compositio, ex eo quod non est idem in eis esse et quod est. Si enim esse est subsistens, nihil præter ipsum esse ei adjungitur; quia, etiam in his quorum esse non est subsistens, quod inest existenti, præter esse ejus, est quidem existenti unitum, non autem est unum cum esse ejus nisi per accidens, in quantum est unum subjectum habens esse et id quod est præter esse; sicut patet quod Socrati, præter suum esse substantiale, inest album, quod quidem diversum est ab ejus esse substantiali; non enim est idem esse Socratem et esse album, nisi per accidens. Si igitur non sit esse in aliqua substantia, non remanebit aliquis modus in quo possit ei uniri illud quod est præter esse. Esse autem, in quantum est esse, non potest esse diversum; potest autem diversificari per aliquid quod est præter esse, sicut esse lapidis est aliud ab esse hominis. Illud igitur quod est subsistens non potest esse nisi unum tantum. Ostensum est autem (l. I, c. xxii et xlii) quod Deus est suum esse subsistens. Nihil igitur aliud præter Ipsum potest esse suum esse; oportet igitur, in omni substantia quæ est præter Ipsum, aliud esse ipsam substantiam et aliud ejus esse. 2. Amplius, Natura communis, si separata intelligatur, non potest esse nisi una, quamvis habentes naturam illam plures possint inveniri; si enim natura animalis per se separata subsisteret, non haberet ea quæ sunt hominis vel quæ sunt bovis; jam enim non esset animal tantum, sed homo vel bos. Remotis autem differentiis constitutivis specierum, remanet natura generis indivisa, quia eædem differentiæ quæ sunt constitutivæ specierum sunt divisivæ generis. Sic igitur, si hoc ipsum quod est esse sit commune sicut genus, esse separatum per se subsistens non potest esse nisi unum; si vero non dividatur differentiis sicut genus, sed per hoc est quod hujus vel ilius esse, jam hoc magis est verum quod non potest esse per se existens nisi unum. Relinquitur igitur quod, quum Deus sit esse subsistens, nihil aliud præter ipsum est suum esse. 3. Adhuc, Impossibile est quod sit duplex esse omnino infinitum. Esse enim quod omnino est infinitum omnem perfectionem essendi comprehendit; et sic, si duobus talis adesset infinitas, non inveniretur quo unum ab altero differret. Esse autem subsistens oportet esse infinitum, quia non terminatur aliquo recipiente. Impossibile est igitur esse aliquod esse subsistens, præter primum. 4. Item, Si sit aliquod esse per se subsistens, nihil competit ei nisi quod est entis in quantum est ens; quod enim dicitur de aliquo, non in quantum hujusmodi, non convenit ei nisi per accidens, ratione subjecti; unde, si separatim a subjecto ponatur, nullo modo ei competit. Esse autem ab alio causatum non competit enti in quantum est ens; alias omne ens esset ab alio causatum, et sic oporteret procedere in infinitum in causis; quod est impossibile, ut supra (l. I, c. xiii) ostensum est. Illud igitur esse quod est ens subsistens, oportet quod sit non causatum; nullum igitur ens causatum est suum esse. 5. Amplius, Substantia uniuscujusque est ens per se et non per aliud; unde esse lucidum actu non est de substantia aeris, quia est ei per aliud. Sed cuilibet rei creatæ suum esse est ei per aliud; alias non esset creatum. Nullius igitur substantiæ creatæ suum esse est sua substantia. 6. Item, Quum omne agens agat in quantum est actu, primo agenti, quod est perfectissimum, competit esse in actu perfectissimo modo. Tanto autem aliquid est perfectius in actu quanto talis actus est in via generationis posterior; actus enim est tempore potentia posterior, in uno et eodem quod de potentia ad actum procedit. Perfectius est quoque in actu quod est ipse actus quam quod est habens actum; hoc enim propter illud actus est. His ergo positis, constat, ex supra (l. I, c. xiii et xv, et l. II, c. xxi) ostensis, quod Deus solus est primum agens. Sibi ergo soli competit esse in actu perfectissimo modo, ut scilicet sit Ipse actus perfectissimus. Hoc autem est esse ad quod generatio et omnis mo- 1 B, C, 2 3 — tus terminatur; omnis enim forma et actus est in potentia, antequam esse acquirat. Soli igitur Deo competit quod sit ipsum esse, sicut soli competit quod sit primum agens. 7. Amplius, Ipsum esse competit primo agenti secundum propriam naturam; esse enim Dei est ejus substantia, ut supra (l. I, c. xxii) ostensum est. Quod autem competit alicui secundum propriam naturam suam, non convenit aliis nisi per modum participationis, sicut calor aliis corporibus ab igne. Ipsum igitur esse competit omnibus aliis a primo agente per participationem quamdam. Quod autem competit alicui per participationem, non est substantia ejus. Impossibile est igitur quod substantia alterius entis, præ- « Omne ens creatum ab alio habet esse. Quod autem ab alio habet esse, est in potentia ad esse, et non est ipsum esse, alioquin esset actus purus sine aliqua potentialitate, non igitur indigeret aliquo essentialiter differente ab eo qui ipsum ad esse perduceret; et ita ponere creatum sic esse, est ipsum ponere non creatum. Item quando aliquid in abstracto de aliquo prædicatur, nihil est in eo quod sit aliud a tali prædicato, ut si natura hominis de homine prædicaretur in abstracto, nihil esset in homine quod non pertineret ad humanitatem, et e converso; quia si nihil aliud esset in homine aliud a natura sua, homo esset sua humanitas. Si igitur esset aliquod ens creatum in quo non esset nisi esse tantum, illud esset suum esse; et illud summe et maxime esset, sive haberet esse, quia in eo non esset nisi esse, sicut dicit Augustinus Deum esse summum bonum quia in eo non est aliud nisi bonum. Sed quod est maxime tale in omni genere, est primo tale et causa omnium aliorum, ut patet secundo Metaphysicæ, et ejus non est aliqua causa. Tale ergo ens non erit creatum sed creator. Omnia igitur, quæ per se habent esse sunt composita; sed ex hoc non sequitur omnem creaturam esse compositam, quia esse quod existit in eo quod est velut in participante esse, creatura est, nec tamen compositum ex quod est et esse. Quia tamen ad rationem simplicitatis requiritur immutabilitas et unitas, cum omnis pars importet aliquam potentialitatem, et per consequens mutabilitatem, quia nihil admixtum potentiae est omnino immutabile, nulla pars erit absoluta in omni modo compositionis. Secundum Proclum autem lib. XVI, prop. lxvi est totalitas ex partibus, in parte, et ante partes. Nam res quae participat esse est totum ex partibus quia constat ex eo quod est et esse. Et est totum in parte, quia omne quod recipitur in aliquo, recipitur secundum modum rei recipiensis. Cum igitur tale esse sic recipitur in alio, non recipitur secundum suam totalitatem, sed secundum partem: unde si totum dicitur non erit totum ut totum, sed totum ut pars. Totum ante partes est esse divinum, nam Deus in se totum esse comprehendit quod a partibus non dependet. Hoc autem esse est omnino immutabile quia aliquid mutatur ut acquirat aliquod esse quod non habet. Deus autem habet omnem modum essendi. Est etiam hoc esse maxime unum quia omne esse ter agens primum, sit ipsum esse. Hinc est quod proprium nomen Dei ponitur esse qui est, Exod. iii, 14, quia ejus solius proprium est quod sua substantia non sit aliud quam suum esse.
Caput 53
[lib.2.cap.53.n.1] CHAPTER LIII—That in Created Subsistent Intelligences there is Actuality and Potentiality
IN whatever being there are found two elements, the one complementary to the other, the proportion of the one element to the other is as the proportion of potential to actual: for nothing is completed except by its own actuality. But in a created intelligent subsistent being there are two elements, the substance itself and the existence thereof which is not the same thing as the substance. Now that existence is the complement of the existing substance: for everything actually exists by having existence. It follows that in every one of the aforesaid substances there is a composition of actuality and potentiality.
2. What is in any being, and comes of the agent that produced it, must be the actuality of that being: for it is an agent’s function to make a thing be in actuality. But, as shown above (Chap. ), all other substances have their existence of the prime agent: indeed their being created substances consists precisely in this, that they have their existence of another. Existence itself therefore is in these created substances as a sort of actualisation of the same. But that in which actuality is received is potentiality: for actuality is such in relation to potentiality. In every created subsistent being therefore there is potentiality and actuality.
[lib.2.cap.53.n.1] Quod in substantiis intellectualibus creatis est actus et potentia. Ex hoc autem evidenter apparet quod in substantiis intellectualibus creatis est compositio actus et potentia. 1. In quocumque enim inveniuntur aliqua duo quorum unum est complementum alterius, proportio unius ad alterum est sicut proportio potentiae ad actum; nihil enim completur nisi per unico modo ibi existit. Sed totum in parte non effugit omne compositum. Nam divisibile est ex eo quod secundum unum modum sive secundum aliquam partem recipitur in uno, alio modo secundum aliam partem in alio; et per hoc ab unitate declinat; quia ex quo dependet ab eo in quo est, in eo est aliqua potentialitas, unde aliquo modo mutationi subjicitur, et ideo non debet dici simplex cum in eo non sit omnimoda unitas, et immutabilitas, quae rationem simplicitatis persciunt. Totum etiam ex partibus simplex dici non debet ratione partium ex quibus constat, et quia omnis creatura vel est ex aliquibus vel dependet ab eo quod est ex aliquibus, et ei inest, vel est totum in partibus vel in parte, et nulla est totum ante partes. Omnis creatura est composita quia secundum Augustinum VI De Trinit., cap. 7, nihil mutabile est simplex. Omnis autem creatura est mutabilis. Ulterius notandum: quodammodo major compositio importatur per totum in parte quam ex partibus; nam de ratione simplitatis sunt indivisibilitas et immutabilitas sive actualitas, quia mutabilitas potentialitatem sequitur, sed totalitas in parte est magis divisa et minus ens in actu quam ex partibus, quia totum ex partibus habet quodammodo suas partes conjunctas et unitas, sicut totum quod constat ex materia et forma habet formam unitam materia, et quod constat ex quidditate et esse habet esse quidditati conjunctum. Non sic totum in parte, nam ex hoc esse participatum dicitur totalitas in parte, quia secundum omnem modum recipitur in participante, sed secundum unam partem est in uno existente, secundum aliam in alio, quae partes propter diversitatem existentium non habent unionem ad invicem vel non tantam sicut partes totius ex partibus, licet etiam totum in parte possit dici ipsum esse vel ipsa actualitas, tamen non adeo est sicut aliud, quia totum ex partibus, sive ipsum suppositum, est id cui per se competit esse, ipsum tamen esse participatum non est, sed suppositum per ipsum est. Unde Boetius De Hebdomad.: diversum est esse et illud quod est; ipsum vero esse individuum est. Cum igitur minus sit totum in parte et magis divisum quam totum ex partibus, concedi quodammodo potest tale totum compositius esse alio. » (Ex cod. G. de F.) proprium actum. In substantia autem intellectuali creata, inveniuntur duo, sci-licet substantia ipsa et esse ejus, quod non est ipsa substantia, ut ostensum est (c. LII); ipsum autem esse est complementum substantiae exsistentis; unum-quodque enim actu est per hoc quod esse habet. Relinquitur igitur quod, in qualibet prædictarum substantiarum, sit compositio actus et potentiæ. 2. Amplius. Quod inest alicui ab agente, oportet esse actum ejus; agentis enim est facere aliquid actu. Ostensum est autem supra (c. xv) quod omnes aliæ substantiae habent esse a primo agente; et per hoc ipsæ substantiae creatæ sunt, quod esse ab alio habent. Ipsum igitur esse inest substantiis creatis ut quidam actus earum. Id autem cui actus inest, potentia est; nam actus, in quantum hu-jusmodi, ad potentiam refertur. In quæ-libet igitur substantia creata, est potentia et actus. 3. Item, Omne participans aliquid comparatur ad ipsum quod participatur ut potentia ad actum; per id enim quod participatur, fit participans actuale. Ostensum est autem supra (l. I, c. xxII, et l. II, c. LII) quod solus Deus est essentialiter ens, omnia autem alia participant ipsum esse. Comparatur igitur substantia omnis creata ad suum esse sicut potentia ad actum. 4. Præterea, Assimilatio alicujus ad causam agentem fit per actum; agens enim agit sibi simile in quantum est actu. Assimilatio autem cujuslibet substantiae creatæ ad Deum est per ipsum esse, ut supra (c. xv et LII) ostensum est. Ipsum igitur esse comparatur ad omnes substantias creatas sicut actus earum. Ex quo relinquitur quod, in qualibet substantia creata, sit compositio actus et potentiæ
Caput 55
[lib.2.cap.55.n.1] CHAPTER LV—That Subsistent Intelligences are Imperishable
WHAT ordinarily and of itself attaches to a thing, inheres in it necessarily and invariably and inseparably, as roundness ordinarily and of itself inheres in a circle, but in a bit of brass metal only incidentally. It is possible for a bit of brass metal to be other than round:
it is impossible for a circle to be other than round. Now existence ordinarily follows upon the form: for we call that ‘ordinary,’ which the thing is inasmuch as it is itself; and everything has existence inasmuch as it has form. Substances therefore that are not pure forms may be deprived of existence inasmuch as they lose their form, as brass is deprived of roundness inasmuch as it ceases to be circular. But substances that are pure forms are never deprived of existence: thus if the ideal circle had substantial existence, that substance could never be made other than round. But subsistent intelligences are pure subsistent forms: therefore it is impossible for them ever to cease to exist.
8. Everything that perishes, perishes by suffering something. Destruction is a sort of suffering. But no subsistent intelligence can suffer any impression such as to lead to its destruction. For to suffer is to receive something; and whatever is received in a subsistent intelligence must be received according to the manner of the same: that is to say, it must be received as an intelligible impression. But whatever is so received in a subsistent intelligence, goes to perfect that intelligence, not to destroy it: for the intelligible is the perfection of the intelligent. A subsistent intelligence therefore is indestructible.
10. The intelligible is the proper perfection of the intellect: hence the understanding in the act of understanding, and its term, or object in the act of being understood, are one. What therefore belongs to the object as intelligible, must belong also to the mind as cognisant of that object; because perfection and perfectible are of the same genus. Now the intelligible object, as such, is necessary and imperishable: for things necessary, or things that must be, are perfectly cognisable to the understanding; while things contingent, that are but might not be, as such, are cognisable only imperfectly: they are not matter of science, but of opinion. Hence the understanding attains to science of perishable things, only in so far as they are imperishable, — that is to say, in so far as they become to the mind universals. Intellect therefore, as such, must be indestructible.
13. It is impossible for a natural desire to be void of object, for nature does nothing in vain. But every intelligence naturally desires perpetuity of being, not only perpetuity of being in the species, but in the individual: which is thus shown. The natural desire which some creatures have arises from conscious apprehension: thus the wolf naturally desires the killing of the animals on which he feeds, and man naturally desires happiness. Other creatures, without any conscious apprehension, are led by the inclination of primitive physical tendencies, which is called in some ‘physical appetite.’ The natural desire of being is contained under both modes: the proof of which is that creatures devoid of any sort of cognitive faculty resist destructive agencies to the full strength of their natural constitution, while creatures possessed of any manner of cognitive faculty resist the same according to the mode of their cognition. Those creatures therefore, devoid of cognition, who have in their natural constitution strength enough to preserve perpetual being, so as to remain always the same numerically, have a natural appetite for perpetuity of being even in respect of sameness of number: while those whose natural constitution has not strength for this, but only for preservation of perpetuity of being in respect of sameness of species, also have a natural appetite for perpetuity. This difference then must be noted in those creatures whose desire of being is attended with cognition, that they who do not know being except in the present time, desire it for the present time, but not for ever, because they have no apprehension of everlasting existence: still they desire the perpetual being of their species, a desire unattended with cognition, because the generative power, which serves that end, is preliminary to and does not come under cognition. Those then that do know and apprehend perpetual being as such, desire the same with a natural desire. But this is the case with all subsistent intelligences. All such subsistent intelligences therefore have a natural desire of everlasting being. Therefore they cannot possibly cease to be.
13. All things that begin to be, and afterwards cease to be, have both their beginning and their ceasing from the same power: for the same is the power to make to be and to make not to be. But subsistent intelligences could not begin to be except through the power of the prime agent. Therefore neither is there any power to make them cease to be except in the prime agent, inasmuch as that agent may cease to pour being into them. But in respect of this power alone nothing can be called perishable; as well because things are called necessary or contingent in respect of the power that is in them, not in respect of the power of God (Chap. ), as also because God, the author of nature, does not withdraw from things that which is proper to their nature; and it has been shown that it is proper to intellectual natures to be perpetual.
[lib.2.cap.55.n.1] Quod substantia intellectuales sunt incorruptibiles. (I, q. 1, a. v.) Ex hoc autem aperte ostenditur quod omnis substantia intellectualis est incorruptibilis. 1. Omnis enim corruptio est per separationem formæ a materia; simplex quidem corruptio per separationem formæ substantialis, corruptio autem secundum quid per separationem formæ accidentalis; forma enim manente, oportet rem esse; per formam enim substantia fit proprium susceptivum ejus quod est esse. Ubi autem non est compositio formæ et materiæ, ibi non potest esse separatio earumdem; igitur nec corruptio. Ostensum est autem (c. L) quod nulla substantia intellectualis est composita ex materia et forma. Nulla igitur substantia intellectualis est corruptibilis. 2. Amplius, Quod per se alicui competit, de necessitate et semper et inseparabiliter ei inest, sicut rotundum per se quidem inest circulo, per accidens autem ari; unde aes quidem fieri non rotundum est possibile, circulum autem non esse rotundum est impossibile. Esse autem per se consequitur ad formam; per se enim dicimus quod secundum ipsum; unumquodque autem habet esse secundum quod habet formam. Substantiæ igitur ipsæ quæ non sunt formæ possunt privari esse, secundum quod amittunt formam; sicut aes privatur rotunditate, secundum quod desinit esse circulare. Substantiæ vero quæ sunt ipsæ formæ nunquam possunt privari esse; sicut, si aliqua substantia esset circulus nunquam posset fieri non rotunda. Ostensum est autem supra (c. L) quod substantia intellectuales sunt ipsæ formæ subsistentes. Impossibile est igitur quod ipsæ esse desinant; sunt igitur incorruptibles. 3. Adhuc, In omni corruptione, remoto actu, manet potentia; non enim corruptitur aliquid in omnino non ens, sicut nec generatur aliquid ex omnino non ente. In substantiis autem intellectualibus, ut ostensum est (c. LIII), actus est ipsum esse; ipsa autem substantia est sicut potentia. Si igitur substantia intellectualis corrumpatur, remanebit post suam corruptionem; quod est omnino impossibile. Omnis igitur substantia intellectualis est incorruptibilis. 4. Item, in omni quod corrumpitur, oportet quod sit potentia ad non esse; si quid igitur est in quo non est potentia ad non esse, hoc non potest esse corruptibile. In substantia autem intellectuali non est potentia ad non esse; manifestum est enim ex dictis (c. LIV) quod substantia completa est proprium susceptivum ipsius esse; proprium autem susceptivum alicujus actus ita comparatur ut potentia ad actum illum, quod nullo modo est in potentia ad oppositum; sicut ignis ita comparatur ad calorem ut potentia ad actum, quod nullo modo est in potentia ad frigus; unde, nec in ipsis substantiis corporalibus, est potentia ad non esse, in ipsa substantia completa, nisi ratione materiæ; in substantiis autem intellectualibus non est materia, sed ipsæ sunt substantia completa simplices. Igitur in eis non est potentia ad non esse; sunt igitur incorruptibles. 5. Præterea, In quibuscumque est compositio potentia et actus, id quod tenet locum primæ potentiae sive primi subjecti est incorruptibile; unde 3, etiam in substantiis corruptibilibus, materia prima est incorruptibilis. Sed 4 in substantiis intellectualibus, id quod tenet locum potentiae primæ et subjecti est ipsa earum substantia completa. Igitur substantia ipsae est incorruptibilis. Nihil autem est corruptibile nisi per hoc quod sua substantia corrumpitur. Igitur omnes intellectuales naturæ sunt incorruptibles. 6. Amplius, Omne quod corrumpitur, vel corrumpitur per se vel per accidentes. Substantiæ autem intellectuales non possunt per se corrumpi; omnis enim corruptio est a contrario; agens enim, quum agat secundum quod est actu, semper agendo ducit ad aliquod esse actu; unde, 1 F, omittit: « Aperte. » 2 — L omittit: « Completa. » 3 Sed « In » expungendum esse aliquis notavit. — C, D: Unde etiam in substantiis incorruptibilis. » 4 si per hujusmodi esse actu aliquid corrupatur desinens esse actu, oportet quod hoc contingat per contrarietatem eorum ad invicem; nam contraria sunt quæ mutuo se expellunt; et propter hoc oportet omne quod corrupitur per se, hoc habere contrarium vel esse ex contrariis compositum. Neutrum autem horum substantiis intellectualibus convenit; cujus signum est quod, in intellectu, ea etiam quæ secundum suam naturam sunt contraria desinunt esse contraria; album enim et nigrum in intellectu non sunt contraria; non enim se expellunt, imo magis se consequuntur; per intellectum enim unius eorum intelligitur aliud. Substantiæ igitur intellectuales non sunt corruptibles per se. Similiter autem neque per accidens; sic enim corrupuntur accidentia et formæ non subsistentes; ostensum est autem supra (c. li) quod substantiæ intellectuales sunt subsistentes. Sunt igitur omnino incorruptibles. 7. Adhuc, Corruptio est mutatio quædam, quam oportet esse terminum motus, ut in quinto Physicorum, c. i, est probatum; unde oportet quod omne quod corrupitur moveatur. Ostensum est autem in naturalibus, Physic. VI, c. vi, quod omne quod movetur est corpus; oportet igitur omne quod corrupitur esse corpus, si per se corrupatur, vel aliquam formam seu virtutem corporis a corpore dependentem, si corrupatur per accidens. Substantiæ autem intellectuales non sunt corpora neque virtutes seu formæ a corpore dependentes. Ergo neque per se neque per accidens corrupuntur. Sunt igitur omnino incorruptibles. 8. Item, Omne quod corrupitur corrupitur per hoc quod aliquid patitur; nam et ipsum corrumpi est quoddam pati. Nulla autem substantia intellectualis potest pati tali passione quæ ducat ad corruptionem; nam pati recipere quoddam est; quod autem recipitur a substantia intellectuali, oportet quod recipiatur in ea per modum ipsius, scilicet intelligibiliter; quod vero sic in substantia intellectuali recipitur, est perficiens substantiam intellectualem et non corrumpens eam; intelligibile enim est perfectio intelligentis. Substantia igitur intelligens est incorruptibilis. 9. Præterea, Sicut sensibile est objectum sensus, ita intelligibile est objectum intellectus. Sensus autem propria corruptione non corrupitur nisi per excellentiam sui objecti, sicut visus a valde fulgidis et auditus a sonis fortibus, et sic de aliis. Dico autem propria corruptione, quia sensus corrupitur etiam per accidens propter corruptionem subjecti; qui tamen modus corruptionis non potest accidere intellectui, quum non sit actus corporis ullius quasi a corpore dependens, ut supra (c. xlix) ostensum est. Patet autem quod nec corrupitur per excellentiam sui objecti, quia qui intelligit valde intelligibility non minus intelligit minus intelligibility, sed magis. Intellectus igitur nullo modo est corruptibilis. 10. Amplius, Intelligibile est propria perfectio intellectus, unde intellectus in actu et intelligibile in actu sunt unum. Quod igitur convenit intelligibili, in quantum est intelligibile, oportet convenire intellectui, in quantum hujusmodi; quia perfectio et perfectibile sunt unius generis. Intelelligibile autem, in quantum est intelligibile, est necessarium et incorruptibile; necessaria enim perfecte sunt intellectu cognoscibilia; contingentia vero, in quantum hujusmodi, nonnisi deficienter; habetur enim de eis non scientia, sed opinio; unde et corruptibilium intellectus scientiam habet, secundum quod sunt incorruptibilia, in quantum scilicet sunt universalia. Oportet igitur intellectum esse incorruptibilem. 11. Adhuc, Unumquodque perficitur secundum modum suæ substantia; ex modo igitur perfectionis alicujus rei potest accipi modus substantia ipsius. Intellectus autem non perficitur per motum, sed per hoc quod est extra motum existens; perficitur enim, secundum intellectivam animam, scientia et prudentia, sedatis permutationibus et corporalibus et animæ passionum, ut patet per Philo- 1 D, omittit: « Est objectum. » 2, L, N, et etiam cod. Bergom. Sed aliquis expunxit « Et » inter « corporalibus » et « animæ », mutans insuper « Passionum » in « Passionibus. » sophum, Physic. VII, c. 111 in fine. Modus igitur substantiæ intelligentis est quod esse suum sit supra motum, et per consequens supra tempus. Esse autem cujuslibet rei corruptibilis subjacet motui et tempori. Impossibile est igitur substantiam intelligentem esse corruptibilem. 12. Præterea, Impossibile est naturæ desiderium esse inane; natura enim nihil facit frustra. Sed quodlibet intelligens naturaliter desiderat esse perpetuum, non solum ut perpetuetur esse secundum speciem, sed etiam secundum individuum, quod sic patet: naturalis enim appetitus quibusdam quidem inest ex apprehensione, sicut lupus naturaliter desiderat occisionem animalium de quibus pascitur, et homo naturaliter desiderat felicitatem; quibusdam vero absque apprehensione, ex sola inclinatione naturalium principiorum, quæ naturalis appetitus in quibusdam dicitur, sicut grave appetit esse deorsum. Utroque autem modo est in rebus naturale desiderium essendi; cujus signum est, quia et ea quæ cognitione carent resistunt corrumpentibus secundum virtutem suorum principiorum naturalium, et ea quæ cognitionem habent resistunt eisdem secundum modum suæ cognitionis. Illa igitur cognitione carentia, quorum principiis inest virtus ad conservandum esse perpetuum ita quod maneant semper eadem secundum numerum, naturaliter appetunt esse perpetuum etiam secundum idem numero; quorum autem principia non habent ad hoc virtutem, sed solum ad conservandum esse perpetuum secundum idem specie, sic naturaliter appetunt perpetuitatem. Hanc igitur differentiam oportet in his inveniri quibus desiderium essendi cum cognitione inest, ut scilicet illa quæ non cognoscunt esse nisi ut nunc, desiderant esse ut nunc, non autem semper, quia esse sempiternum non apprehendunt; desiderant tamen esse speciei perpetuum absque cognitione, quia virtus generativa, quæ ad hoc deservit, præ-ambula est et non subjacens cognitioni; illa autem, quæ ipsum esse perpetuum cognoscunt et apprehendunt, desiderant ipsum naturali desiderio. Hoc autem convenit omnibus substantiis intellectualibus. Omnes igitur substantiæ intellectuales naturali desiderio appetunt esse perpetuum; ergo impossibile est quod esse deficiant. 13. Adhuc, Quæcumque incipiunt esse et desinunt, per eamdem potentiam habent utrumque; eadem enim est potentia ad esse et non esse. Sed substantiæ intellectuales non potueruntincipere esse nisi per potentiam primi agentis; non enim sunt ex materia quæ potuerit præfuisse, ut ostensum est (c. L). Igitur nec est aliqua potentia ad non esse earum nisi in primo agente, secundum quod potest non influere eis esse. Sed ex hac sola potentia nihil potest dici corruptibile: tum quia res dicuntur necessaria et contingentes secundum potentiam quæ est in eis, et non secundum potentiam Dei, ut supra (c. xxx) ostensum est; tum etiam quia Deus, qui est institutor naturæ, non subtrahit rebus quod est proprium naturis earum. Ostensum est autem quod proprium naturis intellectualibus est quod sint perpetuæ; unde hoc eis a Deo non subtrahitur. Sunt igitur substantiæ intellectuales ex omni parte iucorruptibles. Hinc est quod, in Psalmo Laudate Dominum de cælis, con numeratis Angelis et cælestibus corporibus, subjungitur: Statuit ea in æternum et in seculum seculi, Ps. cxviii, 6; per quod prædictorum perpetuitas designatur. — Dionysius etiam, De divinis nomin. c. iv), dicit quod « propter divinæ bonitatis radios « substiterunt intelligibiles et intellectuae « les substantiae, et sunt, et vivunt, et habent vitam indeficientem et immi-norabilem ab universa corruptione et generatione, et morte, mundæ existentes, et elevatæ ab instabili et fluxa « variatione.» 1 A, B, C, — Cod. Bergom, ut Edit.: « Non influere eis esse. » Sed in hoc loco « Potest influere », « Potest non influere » ad idem redit. 2, et cod. Berg. 4 5 6 Supermittit bonitatis radios per quos et subsitere invisibles et intellectuales omnes et essentiae, et virtutes, et operationes: per eos sunt, et vitam habent non deficientem et non minorabilem, ab omni corruptione, et morte, et materia et generatione purgatae, et instantia et fluxu. » (Ex translat. Johan. Scoti.) 7 Immittit bonitatis radios. Propter istos substiterunt intelligibiles et intellectuales omnes substantiae,... sunt, et vivunt, et vitam habent indeficientem et imminorabilem ab universa corruptione, morte et materia et generatione mundæ
Caput 56
[lib.2.cap.56.n.1] CHAPTER LVI, LXIX—How a Subsistent Intelligence may be united with a Body, with a Solution of the Arguments alleged to prove that a Subsistent Intelligence cannot be united with a Body as its Form
A SUBSISTENT intelligence cannot be united with a body by any manner of combination: for combined elements, when the combination is complete, do not remain actually, but virtually only: for if they remained actually, it would not be a combination, but a mere mechanical mixture. But this combination and consequent cessation of actual existence cannot befall subsistent intelligences; for they are imperishable.
It is likewise evident that a subsistent intelligence cannot be united with a body by any manner of contact, properly so called. For contact is only of bodies: those things are in contact, the extremities of which are together, as points, or lines, or circumferences, which are the extremities of bodies.
Still there is one mode of contact whereby a subsistent intelligence may be mingled with a body. For natural bodies in touching one another involve a change, and thus are united together, not only in their quantitative extremities, but also by likeness of one same quality or form, the one in pressing its form on the other. And though, if we regard only quantitative extremities, the contact must be mutual in all cases, yet, if we consider action and passion, there will be found some cases of touching without being touched, and some cases of being touched without touching. Any cases that may be found of contact without contact in quantitative extremities must still be ca]led instances of contact, inasmuch as they are instances of action: thus we say that he who saddens another ‘touches’ him. According to this mode of touch it is possible for a subsistent intelligence to be united to a body by contact: for subsistent intelligences act upon bodies and move them, being more highly actualised than bodies are.
This contact is not quantitative but virtual, and differs from bodily contact in three respects. First, because in this contact the indivisible can touch the divisible, which cannot happen in bodily contact: for only that which is indivisible can be touched by a point, whereas a subsistent intelligence, indivisible though it be, can touch a divisible quantity by acting upon it. The point and the subsistent intelligence are not indivisible in the same way. The point is indivisible as a term of quantity, and has a definite situation in a continuous surface, beyond which it cannot be thrown: whereas a subsistent
intelligence is indivisible by being outside of the category of quantity altogether: hence no indivisible element of quantity is marked out for contact with it. Secondly, because quantitative contact is only with extremities, but virtual contact is with the whole subject touched: for the subject is touched inasmuch as it is acted upon and moved; but that is inasmuch as it is in potentiality; and potentiality extends to the whole, not merely to the extremities of the whole: hence the whole is touched. From this appears a third difference: because in quantitative touch, which is of extremities, the touching body must be outside of the touched, and cannot pervade it, but is stopped by it; whereas the virtual contact, which is proper to subsistent intelligences, reaching to the inmost recesses of things, makes the touching substance be within the touched and pervade it without let or hindrance. Thus then a subsistent intelligence may be united with a body by virtual contact.
Elements united by such contact are not absolutely one: they are one in action and in being acted upon, which does not involve absolute oneness of being. Such absolute oneness may be in three ways: in the way of indivisibility, in the way of continuity, and in the way of natural unity. Now out of a subsistent intelligence and a body there cannot be made an indivisible unity: it must be a compound of two things. Nor again a continuous unity, because the parts of a continuum are quantitative. It remains to be enquired whether out of a subsistent intelligence and a body there can result such a unity as means oneness of nature. But out of two permanent elements there results no being one by nature except that which results of the union of substantial form with matter: for out of substance and accident there results no being one by nature, for the nature or essence of ‘man’ and ‘whiteness’ is not the same. This question then remains to be studied, whether a subsistent intelligence can be the substantial form of any body. Looking at the matter argumentatively, it might seem that the thing is impossible.
Arg. 1. Of two actually existent substances no one being can be made: for the actuality of every being is that whereby it is distinguished from another being. But a subsistent intelligence is an actually existing substance: so likewise is a body. Apparently therefore no one being can be made of a subsistent intelligence and a body.
Arg. 2. Form and matter are contained under the same genus: for every genus is divided into actual and potential. But a subsistent intelligence and a body are of different genera.
Arg. 3. All that is in matter must be material. But if subsistent intelligence is the form of a body, the being of such intelligence must be in matter: for there is no being of the form beyond the being of the matter. It follows that a subsistent intelligence could not be immaterial, as supposed.
Arg. 4. It is impossible for anything having its being in a body to be apart from the body. But intelligence is shown to be apart from the body, as it is neither the body itself nor a bodily faculty.
Arg. 5. Whatever has being in common with the body, must also have activity in common with the body: for the active power of a thing cannot be more exalted than its essence. But if a subsistent intelligence is the form of a body, one being must be common to it and the body: for out of form and matter there results absolute unity, which is unity in being. At that rate the activity of a subsistent intelligence, united as a form to the body, will be exerted in common with the body, and its faculty will be a bodily (or organic) faculty: positions which we regard as impossible.
(Chap. ). It is not difficult to solve the objections alleged against the aforesaid union.
Reply 1. The first objection contains a false supposition: for body and soul are not two actually existing substances, but out of the two of them is made one substance actually existing: for a man’s body is not the same in actuality when the soul is present as when it is absent: it is the soul that gives actual being.
Reply 2. As for the second objection, that form and matter are contained under the same genus, it is not true in the sense that both are species of one genus, but inasmuch as both are elements of the same species. Thus then a subsistent intelligence and a body, which as separate existences would be species of different genera, in their union belong to one genus as elements of the same.
Reply 3. Nor need a subsistent intelligence be a material form, notwithstanding that its existence is in matter: for though in matter, it is not immersed in matter, or wholly comprised in matter.
Reply 4. Nor yet does the union of a subsistent intelligence with a body by its being that body’s form stand in the way of intelligence being separable from body. In a soul we have to observe as well its essence as also its power. In point of essence it gives being to such and such a body, while in point of power it executes its own proper acts. In any activity of the soul therefore which is completed by a bodily organ, the power of the soul which is the
principle of that activity must bring to act that part of the body whereby its activity is completed, as sight brings the eye to act. But in any activity of the soul that we may suppose not to be completed by any bodily organ, the corresponding power will not bring anything in the body to act; and this is the sense in which the intellect is said to be ‘separate,’ — not but that the substance of the soul, whereof intellect is a power, or the intellectual soul, brings the body to act, inasmuch as it is the form which gives being to such body.
Reply 5. Nor is it necessary, as was argued in the fifth place, that if the soul in its substance is the form of the body, its every operation should be through the body, and thus its every faculty should be the actuation of some part of the body: for the human soul is not one of those forms which are entirely immersed in matter, but of all forms it is the most exalted above matter: hence it is capable of a certain activity without the body, being not dependent on the body in its action, as neither in its being is it dependent on the body.
[lib.2.cap.56.n.1] Per quem modum substantia intellectualis possit corpori uniri. Quum autem supra (c. xlix et li) ostensum sit substantiam intellectualem non esse corpus neque virtutem aliquam a corpore dependentem, restat investigandum utrum aliqua substantia intellectualis corpori possit uniri. Est autem primo manifestum quod substantia intellectualis non potest corpori uniri per modum mixtionis. 1. Quæ enim miscentur, oportet ad invicem alterata esse; quod non contingit nisi in his quorum est materia eadem, et quæ possunt esse activa et passiva ad invicem. Substantiæ autem intellectuales non communicant in materia cum corporalibus; sunt enim immateriales, ut supra (c. l) ostensum est. Non sunt igitur corpori miscibles. 2. Adhuc, Quæ miscentur, mixtione jam facta, non manent actu, sed virtute tantum; nam, si actu manerent, non esset mixtio, sed confusio tantum; unde corpus mixtum ex elementis nullum eorum est. Hoc autem impossibile est accidere substantiis intellectualibus; sunt enim incorruptibles, ut supra (c. lv) ostensum est. Non igitur potest substantia intellectualis uniri corpori per modum mixtionis. Similiter autem patet quod substantia intellectualis non potest uniri corpori per modum contactus proprie sumpti. Tactus enim nonnisi corporum est; sunt enim tangentia quorum ultima sunt simul, aut puncta aut lineæ aut superficies, quæ sunt corporum ultima. Non igitur per modum contactus substantia intellectualis corpori uniri potest. Ex hoc autem relinquitur quod, neque continuatione neque compositione aut colligatione, ex substantia intellectuali et corpore unum fieri possit; omnia enim hæc sine contactu esse non possunt. Est tamen quidam modus contactus, quo substantia intellectualis corpori uniri potest. Corpora enim naturalia tangendo se alterant, et sic ad invicem uniuntur, non solum secundum ultima quantitatis, sed etiam secundum similitudinem qualitatis aut formæ, dum alterans formam suam imprimit in alteratum; et quamvis, si considerentur solum ultima quantitatis, etiam oportet in omnibus mutuum esse tactum, tamen, si attendatur ad actionem et passionem, invenientur aliqua esse tangentia tantum et aliqua tacta tantum; corpora enim cœlestia tangunt quidem hoc modo elementaria corpora, in quantum ea alterant; non autem tanguntur ab eis, quia ab eis non patiuntur. Si igitur sint aliqua tangentia quæ in quantitatis ultimis non tangant, dicentur nihilominus tangere, in quantum agunt; secundum quem modum dicimus quod contrisans nos tangit. Hoc igitur modo tangendi possibile est uniri substantiam intellectualem corpori per contactum; agunt enim substantia intellectuales in corpora, et movent ea, quum sint immateriales et magis in actu exsistentes.
Caput 57
[lib.2.cap.57.n.1] CHAPTER LVII—Plato’s Theory of the Union of the Intellectual Soul with the Body
MOVED by these and the like objections, some have said that no subsistent intelligence can possibly be the form of a body. But because the nature of man of itself seemed to give the lie to this statement, inasmuch as man is seen to be composed of an intellectual soul and a body, they have thought out various ways to save the nature of man and adjust their theory to fact. Plato therefore and his followers laid it down that the intellectual soul is not united with the body as form with matter, but only as the mover is with the moved, saying that the soul is in the body as a sailor in his boat: thus the union of soul and body would be virtual contact only, of which above (Chap. ). But as such contact does not produce absolute oneness, this statement leads to the awkward consequence that man is not absolutely one, nor absolutely a being at all, but is a being only accidentally. To escape this conclusion, Plato laid it down that man is not a compound of soul and body, but that the soul using the body is man. This position is shown to be impossible: for things different in being cannot have one and the same activity. I call an activity one and the same, not in respect to the effect to which the activity is terminated, but as it comes forth from the agent. It is true that many men towing a boat make one action in respect
of the thing done, which is one; but still on the part of the men towing there are many actions, as there are many different strains and exertions to haul the boat along: for as action is consequent upon form and power, it follows that where there are different forms and powers there must also be different actions. Now though the soul has a certain proper motion of its own, which it performs independently of the body, namely, the act of understanding, there are however other activities common to soul and body, namely, those of fear, anger, sensation, and the like; for these only come about by some change wrought in some definite part of the body; hence evidently they are conjoint activities of soul and body. Therefore out of soul and body there must result one being, and the two cannot be distinct in being.
But this reasoning may be met by the following reply on behalf of Plato’s view. — There is no difficulty, it will be said, in mover and moved having the same act, notwithstanding their difference in being: for motion is at once the act of the moving force, from which it is, and the act of the thing moved, in which it is. Thus then, on Plato’s theory, the aforesaid activities may be common to soul and body, belonging to the soul as the moving force, and to the body as the thing moved. But this explanation cannot hold for the following reasons.
1. As the Philosopher proves (De Anima, II), sensation results by the sentient subject being moved or impressed by external sensible things: hence a man cannot have a sensation without some external sensible thing, as nothing can be moved without a mover. The sensory organ therefore is moved and impressed in sensation, but that is by the external sensible object. What receives the impression is the sense, as is evident from this, that senseless things do not receive any such manner of impression from sensible objects. The sense therefore is the passive power of the sensory organ. The sentient soul therefore in sensation does not play the part of mover and agent, but is that principle in the subject impressed, in virtue of which the said subject lies open to the impression. But such a principle cannot be different in being from the subject impressed. Therefore the sentient soul is not different in being from the animated body.
2. Though motion is the common act of moving force and object moved, still it is one activity to impart motion and another to receive motion: hence the two several categories of action and passion. If then in sensation the sentient soul stands for the agent, and the body for the patient, there will be one activity of the soul and another of the body. The sentient soul therefore will have an activity and proper motion of its own: it will have therefore its own subsistence: therefore, when the body perishes, it will not cease to be. Thus sentient souls, even of irrational animals, will be immortal; which seems improbable, although it is not out of keeping with Plato’s opinion. But this will be matter of enquiry further on (Chap. ).
3. A body moved does not take its species according to the power that moves it. If therefore the soul is only united to the body as mover to moved, the body and its parts do not take their species from the soul: therefore, when the soul departs, the body and the parts thereof will remain of the same species. But this is manifestly false: for flesh and bone and hands and such parts, after the departure of the soul, do not retain their own names
except by a façon de parler; since none of these parts retains its proper activity, and activity follows species. Therefore the union of soul and body is not that of mover with moved, or of a man with his dress.
6. If the soul is united with the body only as mover with moved, it will be in the power of the soul to go out of the body when it wishes, and, when it wishes, to reunite itself with the body.
That the soul is united with the body as the proper form of the same, is thus proved. That whereby a thing emerges from potential to actual being, is its form and actuality. But by the soul the body emerges from potentiality to actuality: for the being of a living thing is its life: moreover the seed before animation is only potentially alive, and by the soul it is made actually alive: the soul therefore is the form of the animated body.
Again: as part is to part, so is the whole sentient soul to the whole body. But sight is the form and actuality of the eye: therefore the soul is the form and actuality of the body.
[lib.2.cap.57.n.1] Positio Platonis de unione animæ intellectivæ ad corpus. (I, q. lxxvi, a. i.) Ex hoc autem et similibus rationibus aliqui moti dixerunt quod nulla substantia intellectualis potest esse forma corporis. Sed quia huic positioni ipsa hominis natura contradicere videbatur, quia ex anima intellectuali et corpore videtur esse compositus, excogitaverunt quasdam vias per quas naturam hominis salvarent. Plato igitur posuit, et ejus sequaces, quod anima intellectualis non unitur cor- Cod. Berg.: « Salvaretur. » pori sicut forma materiae, sed solum sicut motor mobili, dicens animam esse in corpore sicut nauta est in navi; et sic unio animæ et corporis non esset nisi per contactum virtutis, de quo supra (c. LVI) dictum est. Hoc autem videtur inconveniens. Secundum enim prædictum contactum non fit aliquid unum simpliciter, ut (c. LVI) ostensum est. Ex unione autem animæ et corporis fit homo. Relinquitur igitur quod homo non sit unum simpliciter, et per consequens nec ens simpliciter, sed ens per accidens. Ad hoc autem evitandum, Plato posuit quod homo non sit aliquid compositum ex anima et corpore, sed quod ipsa anima utens corpore sit homo; sicut Petrus non est aliquid compositum ex homine et indumento, sed homo utens indumento. Hoc autem esse impossibile ostenditur. 1. Animal enim et homo sunt quædam sensibilia et naturalia. Hoc autem non esset, si corpus et ejus partes non essent de essentia hominis et animalis, sed tota essentia utriusque esset anima secundum positionem prædictam; anima enim non est aliquid sensibile neque materiale. Impossibile est igitur bominem et animal esse animam utentem corpore, non autem aliquid ex anima et corpore compositum. 2. Item, Impossibile est quod eorum quæ sunt diversa secundum esse sit operatio una; dico autem operationem unam, non ex parte ejus in quod terminatur actio, sed secundum quod egreditur ab agente; multi enim trahentes navim, unam actionem faciunt ex parte operati quod est unum, sed tamen ex parte trahentium sunt multæ actiones, quia sunt diversi impulsus ad trahendum; quum enim actio consequatur formam et virtutem, oportet, quorum sunt diversæ formæ et virtutes, et actiones esse diversas. Quamvis autem animæ sit aliqua operatio propria in qua non communicat corpus, sicut intelligere, sunt tamen aliquæ operationes communes sibi et corpori, ut timere, et irasci, et sentire, et hujusmodi; hæc enim accidunt secundum aliquam transmutationem alicujus determinæ partis corporis; ex quo patet quod simul sunt animæ et corporis operationes. Oportet igitur ex anima et corpore unum fieri, et quod non sint secundum esse diversa. Huic autem rationi secundum Platonis sententiam obviatur. Nihil enim inconve-niens est moventis et moti, quamvis secundum esse diversorum, esse eumdem actum; nam motus est idem quod actus moventis sicut « a quo » est, moti autem sicut « in quo » est. Sic igitur Plato posuit præmissas operationes esse animæ corporisque communes, ut videlicet sint animæ sicut moventis et corporis sicut moti. Sed hoc esse non potest: 1. Quia, ut probat Philosophus, De anima, II, c. v, sentire accidit in ipso moveri a sensibilibus exterioribus; unde non potest homo sentire absque exteriori sensibili, sicut non potest aliquid moveri absque movente. Organum igitur sensus movetur et patitur in sentiendo, sed ab exteriori sensibili. Illud autem quod patitur est sensus; quod ex hoc patet quia carentia sensu non patiuntur a sensibilibus tali modo passionis. Sensus igitur est virtus passiva ipsius organi. Anima igitur sensitiva non habet se in sentiendo sicut movens et agens, sed sicut quo patiens patitur; quod impossibile est esse diversum, secundum esse, a patiente. Non est igitur anima sensibilis, secundum esse, diversa a corpore animato. 2. Præterea, Licet motus sit communis actus moventis et moti, tamen alia operatio est facere motum et recipere motum; unde et duo prædicamenta ponuntur « facere » et « pati. » Si igitur in sentiendo anima sensitiva se habet ut agens, et corpus ut patiens, alia erit operatio animae et alia corporis. Anima igitur sensitiva habebit aliquam operationem propriam; habebit igitur et subsistentiam propriam. Non igitur, destructo corpore, esse desinet; animæ igitur sensitivæ etiam irrationalium animalium erunt immortales; quod quidem improbabile videtur, tamen a Platonis opinione non discordat. Sed de hoc infra (c. Lxxxii) erit locus quæ-rendi. 3. Amplius, Mobile non sortitur speciem a suo motore. Si igitur anima non conjungitur corpori nisi sicut motor mobili, corpus et partes ejus non consequuntur speciem ab anima. Abeunte igitur anima, remanebit corpus et partes ejusdem speciei. Hoc autem est manifeste falsum; nam caro et os et manus et hujusmodi partes, post abscessum animæ, non dicuntur nisi æquivoce, quum nulli harum partium propria operatio adsit quæ speciem consequitur. Non igitur unitur anima corpori sólum sicut motor mobili vel sicut homo vestimento. 4. Adhuc, Mobile non habet esse per suum motorem, sed solum motum. Si igitur anima uniatur corpori solummodo ut motor, corpus movebitur quidem ab anima, sed non habebit esse per eam. Vivere autem est quoddam esse viventis, Non igitur corpus vivet per animam. 5. Item, Mobile neque generatur per applicationem motoris ad ipsum, neque per ejus separationem corrumpitur, quum non dependeat mobile a motore secundum esse, sed secundum moveri tantum. Si igitur anima uniatur corpori solum ut motor, sequetur quod in unione animæ et corporis non erit aliqua generatio, neque in separatione corruptio, et sic mors, quæ consistit in separatione animæ et corporis, non erit corruptio animalis; quod est manifeste falsum. 6. Præterea, Omne movens seipsum itase habet quod in ipso est moveri et non moveri, movere et non movere. Sed anima, sec undum Platonis opinionem, movet corpus sicut movens seipsum. Est ergo in potestate animæ movere corpus et non movere. Si ergo non unitur ei nisi sicut motor mobili, erit in potestate animæ separari a corpore quum voluerit; et iterum uniri ei quum voluerit; quod patet csse falsum. Quod autem ut propria forma anima corpori uniatur, 'sic probatur. 1. Illud quo aliquid fit de potentia ente actu ens, est et forma et actus ipsius. Corpus autem per animam actu fit ens de potentia exsistente; vivere enim est esse viventis; semen autem ante animationem est vivens solum in potentia, per animam autem fit vivens actu. Est igitur anima forma corporis animati. 2. Amplius, Quia tam esse quam operari non est solum formæ neque solum materiæ, sed conjuncti, «esse» et «agere» duobus attribuitur, quorum unum se habet ad alterum sicut forma ad materiam; dicimus enim quod homo est sanus corpore et sanitate, et quod est sciens scientia et anima; quorum scientia est forma animæ scientis, et sanitas corporis sani. Vivere autem et sentire attribuitur animæ et corpori; dicimur enim vivere et sentire anima et corpore, sed anima tamen sicut principio vitæ et sensus. Est igitur anima forma corporis. 3. Adhuc, Similiter se habet tota anima sensitiva ad totum corpus sicut pars ad partem. Pars autem ita se habet ad partem quod est forma et actus ejus; visus enim est forma et actus oculi. Ergo anima est forma et actus corporis.
Caput 58
[lib.2.cap.58.n.1] CHAPTER LVIII—That Vegetative, Sentient, and Intelligent are not in man Three Souls
PLATO lays it down that not one and the same soul is in us at once intelligent, sentient, and vegetative. In this view, granted that the sentient soul is the form of the body, it does not follow that any subsistent intelligence can be the form of a body. The untenableness of this position is thus to be shown.
1. Attributes of the same subject representing different forms are predicated of one another accidentally: thus ‘white’ is said to be ‘musical’ accidentally, inasmuch as whiteness and music happen both to be in Socrates. If then the intelligent, sentient, and vegetative soul are different powers or forms in us, then the attributes that we have according to these forms will be predicated of one another accidentally. But according to the intelligent soul we are called ‘men,’ according to the sentient ‘animals,’ according to the vegetative ‘living.’ This then will be an accidental predication, ‘man is an animal,’ or ‘an animal is a living creature.’ But on the contrary these are cases of essential predication: for man, as man, is an animal; and an animal,
as an animal, is a living creature. Therefore it is from the same principle that one is man, animal, and alive.
2. A thing has unity from the same principle whence it has being, for unity is consequent upon being. Since then everything has being from its form, it will have unity also from its form. If therefore there are posited in man several souls, as so many forms, man will not be one being but several. Nor will the order of the forms to one another, one ensuing upon the other, suffice for the unity of man: for unity in point of orderly succession is not absolute unity: such unity of order in fact is the loosest of unities.
4. If man, as Plato held, is not a compound of soul and body, but is a soul using a body; either this is understood of the intelligent soul, or of the three souls, if there are three, or of two of them. If of three, or two, it follows that man is not one, but two, or three: for he is three souls, or at least two. But if this is understood of the intelligent soul alone, so that the sentient soul is to be taken for the form of the body, and the intelligent soul, using the animate and sentient body, is to be man, there will still ensue awkward consequences, to wit, that man is not an animal, but uses an animal; and that man does not feel, but uses a thing that does feel.
5. Of two or three there cannot be made one without anything to unite them, unless one of them stands to the other as actuality to potentiality: for so of matter and form there is made one without any external bond to bind them together. But if in man there are several souls, they do not stand to one another as matter and form, but they are all supposed to be actualities and principles of action. If then they are to be united to make one man, or one animal, there must be something to unite them. This cannot be the body, since rather the body is made one by the soul: the proof of which fact is that, when the soul departs, the body breaks up. It must be some more formal principle that makes of those several entities one; and this will be rather the soul than those several entities which are united by it. If this again has several parts, and is not one in itself, there must further be something to unite those parts. As we cannot proceed to infinity, we must come to something which is in itself one; and this of all things is the soul. There must therefore in one man, or one animal, be one only soul.
[lib.2.cap.58.n.1] Quod nutritiva, sensitiva et intellectiva non sunt in homine tres animæ. Potest autem prædictis rationibus, secundum opinionem Platonis, obviari, quantum ad præsentem intentionem pertinet. Ponit enim Plato non esse eamdem animam in nobis intellectivam, nutritivam et sensitivam. Unde, etsi anima sensitiva sit forma corporis, non oportebit propter hoc dicere quod aliqua intellectualis substantia forma corporis esse possit. Quod autem hoc sit impossibile, sic ostendendum est. 1. Quæ attribuuntur alicui eidem secundum diversas formas, prædicantur de se invicem per accidens; album enim dicitur esse musicum per accidens, quia Socrati accidit albedo et musica. Si igitur anima intellectiva, et sensitiva, et nutritiva sunt diversæ virtutes aut formæ in nobis, ea quæ secundum has formas nobis conveniunt, de invicem prædicantur per accidens. Sed secundum animam intellectivam dicimur homines, secundum sensitivam animalia, secundum nutritivam viventia. Erit igitur hæc prædicatio per accidens: Homo est animal, vel Animal est vivum. Est autem per se talis prædicatio; nam homo, secundum quod est homo, est animal; et animal, secundum quod est animal, est vivum. Est igitur aliquid ab eodem principio animal, homo et vivum. Si autem dicatur quod, etiam prædictis animabus diversis exsistentibus, non sequitur prædictas prædicationes fore per accidens, eo quod animæ illæ ad invicem ordinem habent, hoc iterum removetur. Nam ordo sensitivi ad intellectivum et nutritivi ad sensitivum est sicut ordo potentiæ ad actum; nam intellectivum sensitivo et sensitivum nutritivo posteriorius secundum generationem est; prius enim generatione fit animal quam homo. Si igitur iste ordo facit prædicationes prædictas esse per se, hoc non erit secundum illum modum dicendi per se qui accipitur secundum formam, sed secundum illum qui accipitur materiam et subjectum, sicut dicitur superficies colorata. Hoc autem est impossibile, quia, isto modo dicendi per se, id quod est formale prædicatur per se de subjecto, ut quum dicimus: Superficies est alba, vel: Numerus est par; et iterum, hoc modo dicendi per se, subjectum ponitur in diffinitione prædicati, sicut numerus in diffinitione paris. Ibi autem e contrario accidit; non enim homo per se prædicatur de animali, sed e converso; et iterum non ponitur subjectum in diffinitione prædicati, sed e converso. Non igitur prædictæ prædicationes dicuntur per se, ratione dicti ordinis. 2. Præterea, Ab eodem aliquid habet esse et unitatem; unum enim consequitur ad ens. Quum igitur a forma unaquæque res habeat esse, a forma etiam habebit unitatem. Si igitur in homine ponantur plures animæ sicut diversæ formæ, homo non erit unum ens, sed plura; nec ad unitatem hominis ordo formarum sufficiet, quia esse unum secundum ordinem non est esse unum simpliciter, quum unitas ordinis sit minima unitatum. 3. Item, Ad hæc redibit prædictum inconveniens, ut scilicet ex anima intellectiva et corpore non fiat unum simpliciter, sed secundum accidens tantum. Omne enim quod alicui advenit post esse completum, advenit ei accidentaliter, quum sit extra essentiam ejus; quælibet etiam forma substantialis facit ens completum in genere substantiae; facit enim ens actu, et hoc aliquid; quidquid igitur post primam formam substantialem advenit rei, accidentaliter adveniet. Quum igitur anima nutritiva sit forma substantialis, vivum enim substantialiter de homine prædicatur et de animali, sequetur quod anima sensitiva adveniat accidentaliter, et similiter intellectiva; et sic neque animal neque homo simpliciter significabit unum, neque aliquod genus neque species in prædicamento substantiae. 4. Amplius, Si homo, secundum Platonis sententiam, non est aliquid ex anima et corpore compositum, sed est anima utens corpore, aut hoc intelligitur solum de anima intellectiva, aut de animabus tribus, si tres sunt, sive de duabus earum. Si de tribus vel duabus, sequitur quod homo non sit unum, sed sit duo vel tria; est enim tres animæ, vel saltem duæ. Si autem hoc intelligitur de anima intellectiva tantum, ita scilicet quod anima sensitiva intelligatur esse forma corporis, et anima intellectiva utens corpore animato et sensificato sit homo, sequentur adhuc inconvenientia, scilicet quod homo, non sit animal, sed utatur animali, nam per animam sensitivam aliquid est animal; et quod homo non sentiat, sed utatur re sentiente. Quæ quum sint inconvenientia, impossibile est tres animas substantia differentes esse in nobis, intellectivum, sensitivum et nutritivum. 5. Adhuc, Ex duobus aut pluribus non potest fieri unum, si non sit aliquid uniens, nisi unum eorum se habeat ad alterum ut actus ad potentiam; sic enim ex materia et forma fit unum, nullo vinculo extraneo eas colligante. Si autem in homine sint plures animæ quæ non se habent ad invicem sicut materia et forma, sed omnes ponuntur ut actus quidam et principia actionum, oportet igitur, si uniantur ad faciendum aliquid unum, puta hominem vel animal, quod sit aliquid uniens. Hoc autem non potest esse corpus quum magis corpus uniatur per animam; cujus signum est quod, discedente anima, corpus dissolvitur. Relinquitur igitur quod oportet aliquid formalius esse, quod facit ex illis pluribus unum; et hoc magis erit anima quam illa plura quæ per ipsum uniuntur. Si igitur hoc iterum est habens partes diversas et non est unum secundum se, oportet adhuc esse aliquod uniens. Quum igitur non sit abire in infinitum, oportet devenire ad aliquid quod sit secundum se unum; et hoc maxime est anima. Oportet igitur, in uno homine vel animali, unam tantum animam esse. 6. Item, Si id quod est ex parte animæ in homine, est ex pluribus congregatum, oportet quod, sicut totum congregatum se habet ad totum corpus, ita singula ad singulas partes corporis; quod etiam a positione Platonis non discordat; ponebat enim animam rationalem in cerebro, nutritivam in hepate, concupiscibilem in corde. Hoc autem apparet esse falsum dupliciter: Primo quidem, quia aliqua pars est animæ, quæ non potest attribui alicui parti corporis, scilicet intellectus, de quo supra (c. LVI) ostensum est quod non est actus alicujus partis corporis; secundo, quia manifestum est quod, in eadem parte corporis, apparent diversa-rum partium animæ operationes, sicut 1 A, C, D, E, F, et cod. Berg. — B: « Descen- XII. patet in animalibus quæ decisa vivunt, quia eadem pars habet motum et sensum et appetitum quo movetur; et similiter eadem pars plantæ decisa nutritur, augetur et germinat; ex quo apparet quod diversæ partes in una et eadem parte corporis sint. Non igitur sunt diversæ animæ in nobis, diversis partibus corporis attributæ. 7. Amplius, Diversæ vires quæ non radicantur in uno principio, non impediunt se invicem in agendo, nisi forte earum actiones essent contrariæ; quod in proposito non contingit. Videmus autem quod diversæ operationes animæ impediunt se; quum enim una est intensa, altera remittitur. Oportet igitur quod istæ actiones, et vires quæ sunt eorum proxima principia, reducantur in unum principium. Hoc autem principium non potest esse corpus: tum quia aliqua actio est in qua non communicat corpus, scilicet intelligere; tum quia, si principium harum virium et actionum esset corpus, in quantum hujusmodi, invenirentur in omnibus corporibus; quod patet esse falsum. Et sic relinquitur quod sit principium earum forma aliqua una per quam hoc corpus est tale corpus, quæ est anima. Relinquitur igitur quod omnes actiones animæ quæ sunt in nobis ab ipsa una procedunt; et sic non sunt in nobis plures animæ. Huic autem consonat quod dicitur in Libro De ecclesiasticis dogmatibus: « Neque duas animas esse dicimus in uno homine, sicut Jacobus et alii Syrorum scribunt: unam animalem, qua animetur corpus, et quæ immixta sit sanguini; et alteram spiritualem, quæ rationem ministrat. Sed dicimus unam esse eamdemque animam in homine, quæ et corpus sua societate vivificet et semetipsam sua ratione disponat.»
Caput 59
[lib.2.cap.59.n.1] CHAPTER LIX—That the Potential Intellect of Man is not a Spirit subsisting apart from Matter
THERE were others who used another invention in maintaining the point, that a subsistent intelligence cannot be united with a body as its form. They say that the intellect which Aristotle calls ‘potential,’ is a spiritual being, subsisting apart by itself, and not united with us as a form. And this they endeavour to prove from the words of Aristotle, who says, speaking of this intellect, that it is “separate, unmixed with body, simple and impassible,” terms which could not be applied to it, they say, if it were the form of a body. Also from the argument by which Aristotle proves that
because the potential intellect receives all impressions of sensible things, and is in potentiality to them all, it must be devoid of all to begin with, as the pupil of the eye, which receives all impressions of colours, is devoid of all colour; because if it had of itself any colour, that colour would prevent other colours from being seen; nay, nothing would be seen except under that colour; and the like would be the case of the potential intellect, if it had of itself any form or nature of sensible things, as it would have were it the form of any body; because, since form and matter make one, the form must participate to some extent in the nature of that whereof it is the form.
These passages moved Averroes to suppose the potential intellect, whereby
the soul understands, to be separate in being from the body, and not to be the form of the body. But because this intellect would have no connexion with us, nor should we be able to understand by it unless it were somehow united with us, Averroes fixes upon a mode in which it is united with us, as he thinks, sufficiently. He says that an impression actually made in the understanding is a ‘form’ of the potential intellect, in the same way that an actually visible appearance, as such, is a ‘form’ of the visual faculty; hence out of the potential intellect, and this form or impression actually made in the same, there results one being. With whatever being therefore this ‘form’ of the understanding is conjoined, the potential intellect is also conjoined with that being. But this ‘form ‘is conjoined with us by means of the ‘phantasm,’ or image in the phantasy, which image is a Sort of subject receiving in itself that ‘form’ of understanding.
1. It is easy to see how frivolous and impossible all this construction is. For what has understanding is intelligent; and that of which an intelligible impression is united with the understanding, is understood. The fact that an intelligible impression, united with a (foreign) understanding, comes somehow to be in man, will not render man intelligent; it will merely make him understood by that separately subsisting intelligence.
2. Besides, the impression actually in understanding is the form of the potential intellect, in the same way that the actual visible appearance is the form of the visual power, or eye. But the impression actually in understanding is to the phantasms as the actual visible appearance is to the coloured surface, which is outside the soul. This similitude is used by Averroes, as also by Aristotle. Therefore the supposed union of the potential intellect (by means of the intelligible form) with the phantasm that is in us will resemble the union of the visual power with the colour that is in the stone. But this union does not make the stone see, but be seen. Therefore the aforesaid union does not make us understand, but be understood. But, plainly, it is properly and truly said that man understands: for we should not be investigating the nature
of understanding were it not for the fact that we have understanding. The above mode of union then is insufficient.
5. The intellect in the act of understanding and the object as represented in understanding are one, as also the sense in the act of sensation and the object as represented in sense. But the understanding as apt to understand and its object as open to representation in understanding are not one, as neither is sense, so far as it is apt to have sensation, one with its object, so far as that is open to be represented in sensation. The impression made by the object, so far as it lies in images of the phantasy, is not any representation in the understanding. Only by undergoing a process of abstraction from such images does the impression became one with the intellect in the act of understanding. In like manner the impression of colour is actually felt in sense, not as it is in the stone, but as it is in the eye. Now, on the theory of Averroes, the intelligible form, or impression in the understanding, only comes to be conjoined with us by finding place in the images of our phantasy. Therefore it is not conjoined with us inasmuch as it is one with the potential intellect, being its form. Therefore it cannot be the medium whereby the potential intellect is conjoined with us: because, in so far as it is conjoined with the potential intellect, it is not conjoined with us; and in so far as it is conjoined with us, it is not conjoined with the potential intellect.
[lib.2.cap.59.n.1] Quod intellectus possibilis hominis non est substantia separata. Fuerunt autem et alia adinventione utentes in sustinendo quod substantia, K, L, M, N, et cod. Berg. Neque duas animas esse dicimus in uno homine, sicut Jacobus et alii Syrorum scribunt: unam animalem, qua animetur corpus, et immixta sit sanguini; et alteram spiritualem, quæ rationem ministrat. Sed dicimus unam esse eamdemque animam in homine, quæ et corpus sua societate vivificet et semetipsa sua rationem disponat, habens in se libertatem arbitrii, ut in suæ substantia eligat cogitatione quod vult. » (Gennad. Massil. De ecclesiasticis dogmatibus, c. 15, in tomo VIII opp. S. Aug. Patrol. Lat. t. XLII, col. 1216.) corpore virtutem infinitam, ut probatur ab Aristotele, Physic. VIII, c. x. Intellectus autem possibilis est quodammodo virtutis infinitæ; judicamus enim per ipsum res infinitas secundum numerum in quantum per ipsum cognoscimus universalia, sub quibus comprehenduntur particularia infinita in potentia. Non est igitur intellectus possibilis virtus in corpore. Ex his autem motus est Averrhoes, et quidam antiqui, ut ipse dicit, De anima, III, ad ponendum intellectum possibilem, quo intelligit anima, esse separatum secundum esse a corpore, et non esse formam corporis. Sed, quia hic intellectus nihil ad nos pertineret nec per ipsum intelligeremus, nisi nobiscum aliquo modo conjungeretur, determinat etiam modum quo continuatur nobiscum, dicens quod species intellecta in actu est forma intellectus posibilis, sicut visibile in actu est potentia formæ visivæ; unde, ex imposibili et forma intellecta in actu, fit unum. Cuicumque igitur conjungitur forma intellecta, conjungitur intellectus posibilis. Conjungitur autem nobis, mediante phantasmate, quod est subjectum quoddam illius formæ intellectæ. Per hunc etiam modum intellectus posibilis nobiscum continuatur. Quod autem hæc frivola sint et impossibilia, facile est videre. 1. Habens enim intellectum est intelligens. Intelligitur autem id cujus species intelligibilis intellectui unitur. Per hoc autem quod species intellectualis intellectui unita est in homine per aliquem modum, non habebit homo quod sit intelligens, sed solum quod intelligatur ab intellectu separato. 2. Præterea, Sic 1 species intellecta in actu est forma intellectus possibilis, sicut species visibilis in actu est forma potentia visivæ2 sive ipsius oculi; species autem intellectualis sic se habet ad phantasmata sicut species visibilis in actu ad coloratum quod est extra animam; et hac similitudine ipse utitur, et etiam Aristoteles, De anima, III, c. vii. Similis igitur continuatio est intellectus possibilis per formam intelligibilem ad phantasma quod in nobis est, et potentia visivæ ad colorem qui est in lapide. Hæc autem continuatio non facit lapidem videre, sed solum videri. Ergo et prædicta continuatio intellectus possibilis nobiscum non facit nos intelligere, sed intelligi solum. Planum autem est quod proprie et vere dicitur quod homo intelligit; non enim naturam intellectus investigaremus nisi per hoc quod nos intelligimus. Non igitur sufficiens est prædictus continuationis modus. 3. Adhuc, Omne cognoscens per virtutem cognoscitivam conjungitur objecto, et non e converso; sicut et operans omne per virtutem operativam conjungitur operato. Homo autem est intelligens per intellectum sicut per virtutem cognoscitivam. Non igitur per formam intelligibilem intellectui, sed magis per intellectum intelligibilis conjungitur. 4. Amplius, Id quo aliquid operatur, oportet esse formam ejus; nihil enim agit nisi secundum quod est actu; actu autem non est aliquid, nisi per id quod est forma ejus; unde et Aristoteles probat, De anima, II, c. 11 et 1v, animam esse formam, per hoc quod animal per animam vivit et sentit. Homo autem intelligit, et nonnisi per intellectum; unde et Aristoteles, inquirens de principio quo intelligimus, tradit nobis naturam intellectus possibilis. Oportet igitur intellectum possibilem formaliter uniri nobis, et non solum per suum objectum. 5. Præterea, Intellectus in actu et intelligibile in actu sunt unum, sicut sensus in actu et sensibile in actu; non autem intellectus in potentia, sicut nec sensus in potentia et sensibile in potentia et intelligibile in potentia. Species igitur rei, secundum quod est in phantasmatibus, non est intelligibilis actu, non enim sic est unum cum intellectu in actu, sed secundum quod est a phantasmatibus abstracta; sicut nec species coloris est sensata in actu secundum quod est in lapide, sed solum secundum quod est in pupilla. Sic autem solum continuatur nobiscum species intelligibilis secundum quod est in phantasmatibus, secundum positionem prædictam. Non igitur continuatur nobiscum secundum quod est unum cum intellectu possibili ut forma ejus. Ergo non potest esse medium quo continueur intellectus possibilis nobiscum, quia, secundum quod continuatur cum intellectu possibili, non continuatur nobiscum, nec e converso., et cod. Berg. Patet autem eum qui hanc positionem induxit, aquivocatione deceptum fuisse. Colores enim extra animam existentes, praesente lumine, sunt visibles actu, potentes movere visum, non autem ut actu sensata, secundum quod sunt unum cum visu in actu; et similiter phantasmata per lumen intellectus agentis fiunt actu intelligibilia, ut possint movere intellectum possibile, non autem ut sint intellecta actu, secundum quod sunt unum cum intellectu possibili facta in actu. 6. Item, Ubi invenitur altior operatio viventis, ibi invenitur altior species vitæ, correspondens illi actioni; in plantis enim invenitur sola actio ad nutritionem pertinens, in animalibus autem invenitur altior actio, scilicet sentire et moveri secundum locum; unde et animal vivit altiori specie vitæ. Sed adhuc in homine invenitur altior operatio ad vitam pertinens quam in animali, scilicet intelligere. Ergo homo habebit altiorem speciem vitæ. Sed vita est per animam. Habebit igitur homo altiorem animam, qua vivit, quam sit anima sensibilis. Nulla autem est altior quam intellectus. Est igitur intellectus anima hominis, et per consequens forma ipsius. 7. Adhuc, Quod consequitur ad operationem alicujus rei non largitur alicui speciem, quia operatio est actus secundus, forma autem per quam aliquid habet speciem est actus primus. Unio autem intellectus possibilis ad hominem, secundum positionem prædictam, consequitur hominis operationem; fit enim mediante phantasia, quæ, secundum Philosophum, De anima, II, c. xii, est motus factus a sensu secundum actum. Ex tali igitur unione non consequitur homo speciem; non igitur differt homo specie a brutis animalibus per hoc quod est intellectum habens. 8. Amplius, Si homo speciem sortitur per hoc quod est rationalis et intellectum habens, quicumque est in specie humana est rationalis et intellectum habens. Sed puer, etiam antequam ex utero egrediatur, est in specie humana; in quo tamen nondum sunt phanstasmata, quæ sunt intelligibilia actu. Non est igitur homo intellectum habens per hoc quod intellectus continuatur homini mediante specie intelligibili, cujus subjectum est phantasma.
Caput 60
[lib.2.cap.60.n.1] CHAPTER LX—That Man is not a Member the Human Species by possession of Passive Intellect, but by possession of Potential Intellect
AVERROES endeavours to meet these arguments and to maintain the position aforesaid. He says accordingly that man differs from dumb animals by what Aristotle calls the ‘passive intellect,’ which is that ‘cogitative power’ (vis cogitativa) proper to man, in place whereof other animals have a certain ‘estimative power’ (aestimativa). The function of this ‘cogitative power’ is to distinguish individual ideas and compare them with one another, as the intellect, which is separate and unmixed, compares and distinguishes between universal ideas. And because by this cogitative power, along with imagination and memory, phantasms, or impressions of phantasy, are prepared to receive the action of the ‘active intellect,’ whereby they are made actual terms of understanding, therefore the aforesaid cogitative power is called by the names of ‘intellect’ and ‘reason.’ Doctors say that it has its seat in the middle cell of the brain. According to the disposition of this power one man differs from another in genius, and in other points of intelligence; and by the use and exercise of this power man acquires the habit of knowledge. Hence the passive intellect is the subject of the various habits of knowledge. And this passive intellect is in a child from the beginning; and by virtue of it he is a member of the human species before he actually understands anything. So far Averroes. The falsity and perverseness of his statements evidently appears.
1. Vital activities stand to the soul as second actualities to the first. Now the first actuality is prior in time to the second in the same subject, as knowledge is prior in time to learned speculation. In whatever being therefore there is found any vital activity, there must be some portion of soul standing to that activity as the first actuality to the second. But man has one activity proper to him above all other animals, namely that of understanding and reasoning. Therefore we must posit in man some proper specific principle, which shall be to the act of understanding as the first actuality to the second. This principle cannot be the aforesaid ‘passive intellect’: for the principle of the aforesaid activity must be “impassible and nowise implicated with the body,” as the Philosopher proves, whereas evidently quite the contrary is the case with the passive intellect. Therefore that cognitive faculty called the ‘passive intellect’ cannot possibly be the speciality that differentiates the human species from other animals.
2. An incident of the sensitive part cannot constitute a being in a higher kind of life than that of the sensitive part, as an incident of the vegetative soul does not place a being in a higher kind of life than the vegetative life. But it is certain that phantasy and the faculties consequent thereon, as memory and the like, are incidents of the sensitive part. Therefore by the aforesaid faculties, or by any one of them, an animal cannot be placed in any higher rank of life than that which goes with the sentient soul. But man is in a higher rank of life than that. Therefore the man does not live the life that is proper to him by virtue of the aforesaid ‘cogitative faculty,’ or ‘passive intellect.’
4. The ‘potential intellect’ is proved not to be the actualisation of any corporeal organ from this consideration, that the said intellect takes cognisance of all sensible forms under a universal aspect. Therefore no faculty, the activity of which can reach to the universal aspects of all corporeal forms, can be the actualisation of any corporeal organ. But such a faculty is the will: for of all of the things that we understand we can have a will, at least of knowing them. And we also find acts of the will in the general: thus, as Aristotle says (Rhet. II, 4), we hate in general the whole race of robbers. The will then cannot be the actualisation of any bodily organ. But every portion of the soul is the actualisation of some bodily organ, except only the intellect properly so called. The will therefore belongs to the intellectual part, as Aristotle says. Now the will of man is not extrinsic to man, planted as it were in some separately subsisting intelligence, but is in the man himself: otherwise he would not be master of his own acts, but would be worked by the will of a spirit other than himself: those appetitive, or conative, faculties
alone would remain in him, the activity whereof is conjoined with passion, to wit the irascible and concupiscible in the sentient part of his being, as in other animals, which are rather acted upon than act. But this is impossible: it would be the undoing of all moral philosophy and all social and political science. Therefore there must be in us a potential intellect to differentiate us from dumb animals: the passive intellect is not enough.
6. A habit and the act proper to that habit both reside in the same faculty. But to view a thing intellectually, which is the act proper to the habit of knowledge, cannot be an exercise of the faculty called ‘passive intellect,’ but must properly belong to the potential intellect: for the condition of any faculty exercising intelligence is that it should not be an actualisation of any corporeal organ. Therefore the habit of knowledge is not in the passive intellect, but in the potential intellect.
8. Habitual understanding, as our opponent acknowledges, is an effect of the ‘active intellect.’ But the effects of the active intellect are actual representations in understanding, the proper recipient of which is the potential intellect, to which the active intellect stands related, as Aristotle says, “as art to material.” Therefore the habitual understanding, which is the habit of knowledge, must be in the potential intellect, not in the passive.
[lib.2.cap.60.n.1] Quod homo non sortitur speciem per intellectum passivum, sed per intellectum possibile. His autem rationibus obviatur, secundum prædictam positionem. Dicit enim prædictus Averrhoes, De anima, III, quod homo differt specie a brutis per intellectum quem Aristoteles vocat passivum, qui est ipsa vis cogitativa quæ est propria homini, loco cujus alia animalia habent quamdam aestimativam naturalem. Hujus autem cogitativæ virtutis est distinguere intentiones individuales et comparare eas ad invicem, sicut intellectus, qui est separatus et immixtus, comparat et distinguit inter intentiones universales; et quia per hanc virtutem simul cum imaginativa et memorativa præparantur phantasmata ut recipient actionem intellectus agentis a quo fiunt intelligibilia actu, sicut sunt aliquæ-artes præparantes materiam artifici principali, ideo prædicta virtus vocatur nomine intellectus et rationis, de qua medici dicunt quod habet sedem in media cellula capitis; et secundum hujus dispositionem virtutis, differt homo unus ab alio in ingenio et in aliis quæ pertinent ad intelligendem; et per usum hujus et exercitium acquirit homo habitum scientiae; unde habitus scientiarum sunt in hoc intellectu passivo sicut in subjecto; et hic intellectus passivus a principio adest puero, per quem sortitur speciem humanam, antequam actu intelligat. Quod autem hæc sint falsa et abusive dicta, evidenter apparet. 4. Operationes enim vitæ comparantur ad animam ut actus secundi ad primum, ut patet per Philosophum, De anima, II, c. 1. Actus autem primus in eodem præcedit tempore actum secundum, sicut scientiae est ante considerare. In quocumque igitur invenitur aliqua operatio vitæ, oportet imponere aliquam partem animæ, quæ comparatur ad illam operationem sicut actus primus ad secundum. Sed A, B, C, D omittunt: « Sed per intellectum possibile. » — Titulus in C desideratur, et ex alia manu in F scribitur infra paginam, ut sæ- Cod. Bergom.: « Existimationem. » homo habet propriam operationem supra alia animalia, scilicet intelligere et ratiocinari, quæ est operatio hominis in quantum homo est, ut Aristoteles dicit, Ethic. I, c. vi. Ergo oportet in homine ponere aliquod principium quod proprie dat speciem homini, quod se habeat ad intelligere sicut actus primus ad secundum. Hoc autem non potest esse intellectus passivus prædictus, quia principium prædictæ operationis oportet esse impassibile et non mixtum corpori, ut Philosophus probat, De anima, III, c. iv et v; cujus contrarium apparet de intellectu passivo. Non igitur est possibile quod, per virtutem cognitivam quæ dicitur intellectus passivus, homo speciem sortiatur per quam ab aliis animalibus differat. 2. Adhuc, Quod est passio partis sensitivæ non potest ponere in altiori genere vitæ quam sit vita sensitiva, sicut quod est passio animæ nutritivæ non ponit in altiori genere vitæ quam sit vita nutritiva. Constat autem quod phantasia et hujusmodi potentiæ quæ ad ipsam consequuntur, ut memorativa et consimiles, sunt passiones partis sensitivæ, ut probat Philosophus, De memoria et reminiscentia, c. i. Non igitur, per prædictas virtutes vel aliquam earum, animal aliquod potest poni in altiori genere vitæ quam sit vita sensitiva. Homo autem est in altiori genere vitæ; quod patet per Philosophum, De anima, II, c. iii in fine, qui, distinguens genera vitæ, superaddit intellectivum, quod homini attribuit, sensitivo, quod attribuit communiter omni animali. Non igitur homo est vivens, vita sibi propria, per virtutem cogitativam prædictam. 3. Amplius, Omne movens seipsum, secundum quod probat Philosophus, Physic. VIII, c. v, componitur ex movente et moto. Homo autem, sicut et alia animalia, est movens seipsum. Ergo movens et motum sunt partes ipsius. Primum autem movens in homine est intellectus; nam intellectus suo intelligibili movet voluntatem. Nec potest dici quod solus intellectus passivus sit movens, quia intellectus passivus est solum particularium; in movendo autem accipitur universalis opinio quæ est intellectus possibilis, et particularis quæ potest esse intellectus passivi, ut patet per Aristo-telem, De anima. III, c. x, et Ethic, VII, c. v. Ergo intellectus possibilis est aliqua pars hominis, et est dignissimum et formalissimum in ipso. Ergo ab eo speciem sortitur, et non ab intellectu passivo. 4. Adhuc, Intellectus possibilis probatur non esse actus corporis alicujus, propter hoc quod est cognoscitivus omnium formarum sensibilium in universali. Nulla igitur virtus cujus operatio se extendere potest ad universalia omnium formarum sensibilium, potest esse actus alicujus corporis. Voluntas autem est hujusmodi; omnium enim eorum quæ intelligimus possumus habere voluntatem, saltem ea cognoscendi. Apparet etiam actus voluntatis in universali; odimus enim, ut dicit Aristoteles, Rhet. l. II, c. iv, in universali latronum genus; irascimur autem particularibus tantum. Voluntas autem non potest esse actus alicujus partis corporis, nec consequi aliquam potentiam quæ sit actus corporis; omnis autem pars animæ est actus alicujus corporis, praeter solum intellectum proprie dictum. Igitur voluntas in intellectiva parte est; unde et Aristoteles dicit, De anima, III, c. ix, quod voluntas in ratione est, irascibilis autem et concupiscibilis in parte sensitiva; propter quod et actus concupiscibilis et irascibilis cum passione sunt, non autem actus voluntatis, sed cum electione. Voluntas autem hominis non est extrinseca ab homine, quasi in quadam substantia separata fundata, sed est in ipso homine; aliter enim non esset dominus suarum actionum, quia ageretur voluntate cujusdam substantia separata, et in ipso essent tantum potentiae appetitivæ cum passione operantes, scilicet irascibilis et concupiscibilis quæ sunt in parte sensitiva, sicut et in cæteris animalibus quæ magis aguntur quam agunt. Hoc autem est impossibile et destructivum totius moralis philosophiae et politicæ considerationis. Oportet igitur intellectum possibilem in nobis esse, per quem a brutis differamus, et non solum secundum intellectum passivum. 5. Item, Sicut nihil est potens agere nisi per potentiam activam in ipso exsistentem, ita nihil potens est pati nisi per potentiam passivam quæ est in ipso; combustibile enim est potens comburi, non solum quia est aliquid potens comburere ipsum, sed etiam quia in se hapotentiam ut comburatur. Intelligere autem est quoddam pati, ut dicitur De anima, III, c. 11 et iv. Quum igitur puer sit intelligens potentia, et si non actu intelligat, oportet quod sit in eo aliqua potentia qua sit potens intelligere. Hæc autem potentia est intellectus possibilis. Oportet igitur quod puero jam sit conjunctus intellectus possibilis antequam actu intelligat. Non est igitur continuatio intellectus possibilis cum homine per formam intellectam in actu; sed ipse intellectus possibilis inest homini a principio sicut aliquid ejus. Huic autem rationi respondet Averhoes prædictus. Dicit enim quod puer dicitur potentia intelligere duplici ratione: uno modo, quia phantasmata quæ sunt in ipso sunt intelligibilia in potentia; alio modo, quia intellectus possibilis est potens continuari cum ipso, et non quia intellectus sit jam unitus ei. Ostendendum est autem quod uterque modus sit insufficiens. 1. Alia enim potentia est qua agens potest agere, et alia potentia qua patiens potest pati; et ex opposito dividuntur. Ex eo igitur quod convenit alicui quod possit agere, non competit ei quod possit pati. Posse autem intelligere est posse pati, quum intelligere quoddam pati sit, secundum Philosophum De anima, III, c. 11 et iv. Non igitur dicitur puer potens intelligere ex eo quod phantasmata in eo possunt esse intellecta in actu, quum hoc pertineat ad posse agere; phantasmata enim movent intellectum possibilem. 2. Adhuc, Potentia consequens speciem alicujus non competit ei secundum id quod speciem non largitur. Posse autem intelligere consequitur speciem humanam; est enim intelligere operatio hominis in quantum hujusmodi; phantasmata autem non dant speciem humanam, sed magis consequuntur operationem hominis. Non ergo ratione phantasmatum potest dici puer potentia intelligens. Similiter autem neque potest dici puer posse intelligere quia intellectus possibilis potest continuari cum ipso. 1. Sic enim aliquis dicitur potentia agere vel pati per potentiam activam vel passivam, sicut dicitur albus per albedinem. Non autem aliquis dicitur albus, antequam albedo sit ei conjuncta. Ergo neque dicitur aliquis potens agere vel pati, antequam potentia activa vel passiva ei adsit; non ergo de puero posset dici quod est potens intelligere, antequam intellectus possibilis, qui est potentia intelligendi, sit ei continuatus. 2. Præterea, Aliter dicitur aliquis potens operari, antequam habeat naturam qua operetur, et aliter postquam jam habet naturam, sed impeditur per accidens ab operando; sicut aliter dicitur corpus potens ferri sursum, antequam sit leve, et aliter postquam jam est generatum leve, sed impeditur in suo motu. Puer autem est in potentia intelligens, non quasi nondum habens naturam intelligendi, sed habens impedimentum ut non intelligat; impeditur enim ab intelligendo propter multimodos motus in ipso exsistentes, ut dicitur in septimo Physicorum, c. 11. Non igitur propter hoc dicitur potens intelligere quia intellectus possibilis, qui est intelligendi principium, potest continuari sibi, sed quia jam est continuatus, et impeditur ab actione propria; unde, impedimento remoto, statim intelligit. 3. Item, Habitus est quo quis operatur quum voluerit. Oportet igitur ejusdem esse habitum et operationem quae est secundum habitum. Sed considerare intelligendo, quod est actus hujus habitus qui est scientia, non potest esse intellectus passivi, sed est ipsius intellectus possibilis; ad hoc enim quod aliqua potentia intelligat, oportet quod non sit actus corporis alicujus. Ergo et habitus scientia non est in intellectu passivo, sed in intellectu possibili. Scientia autem in nobis est, secundum quam dicimur scientes. Ergo et intellectus possibilis est in nobis non secundum esse a nobis separatus. 4. Adhuc, Scientia est assimilatio scientis ad rem scitam. Rei autem scitæ, in quantum est scita, non assimilatur sciens, nisi secundum species universales; scientia enim de hujusmodi est: species autem universales non possunt in intellectu passivo esse, quum sit potentia utens organo, sed solum in intellectu possibili. Scientia igitur non est in intellectu passivo, sed solum in intellectu possibili. 5. Amplius, Intellectus in habitu, ut adversarius confitetur, est effectus intellectus agentis. Intellectus autem agentis effectus sunt intelligibilia in actu, quorum proprium recipiens est intellectus possibilis, ad quem comparatur agens sicut ars ad materiam, ut Aristoteles dicit (De anima, III, c. v. Oportet igitur intellectum in habitu, qui est habitus scientiæ, esse in intellectu possibili, non passivo. 6. Præterea, Impossibile est quod perfectio superioris substantiæ dependeat ab inferiori. Perfectio autem intellectus possibilis dependet ab operatione hominis; dependet enim a phantasmatibus quæ movent intellectum possibilem. Non igitur est intellectus possibilis aliqua substantia superior homine; ergo oportet quod sit aliquid hominis, ut actus et forma ipsius. 7. Adhuc, Quæcumque sunt separata secundum esse, habent etiam separatas operationes; nam res sunt propter suas operationes, sicut actus primus propter secundum; unde Aristoteles dicit, De anima, I, c. 1, quod, si aliqua operationum animæ est sine corpore, possibile est animam separari. Operatio autem intellectus possibilis indiget corpore; dicit enim Philosophus, De anima, III c. VII, quod anima potest agere per seipsam, scilicet intelligere, quando intellectus est factus in actu per speciem a phantasmatibus abstractam, quæ non sunt sine corpore. Igitur intellectus possibilis non est omnino a corpore separatus. 8. Amplius, Cuicumque competit aliqua operatio secundum naturam, sunt ei a natura attributa ea sine quibus illa operatio compleri non potest, sicut Aristoteles probat, De cælo, II, c. VIII, quod, si stellæ moverentur motu progressivo ad modum animalium, natura dedisset eis organa motus progressivi. Sed operatio intellectus possibilis completur per organa corporea, in quibus necesse est esse phantasmata. Natura igitur intellectum possibilem corporeis univit organis; non est igitur secundum esse a corpore separatus. 9. Item, Si sit secundum esse a corpore separatus, magis intelliget substantias quæ sunt a materia separatæ quam formas sensibiles, quia sunt magis intelligibles et magis ei conformes.
Caput 61
[lib.2.cap.61.n.1] CHAPTER LXI—That the aforesaid Tenet is contrary to the Mind of Aristotle
ARISTOTLE defines soul, “the first actuality of a natural, organic body, potentially alive”; and adds, “this definition applies universally to every soul.” Nor does he, as the aforesaid Averroes pretends, put forth this latter remark in a tentative way, as may be seen from the Greek copies and the translation of Boethius. Afterwards in the same chapter he adds that there are “certain parts of the soul separable,” and these are none other than the intellectual parts. The conclusion remains that the said parts are actualisations of the body.
2. Nor is this explanation inconsistent with Aristotle’s words subjoined: “About the intellect and the speculative faculty the case is not yet clear: but it seems to be another kind of soul.” He does not hereby mean to separate the intellect from the common definition of ‘soul,’ but from the peculiar natures of the other parts of soul: as one who says that fowls are a different sort of animal from land animals, does not take away from the fowl the common definition of ‘animal.’ Hence, to show in what respect he called it “another kind,” he adds: “And of this alone is there possibility of separation, as of the everlasting from the perishable.” Nor is it the intention of Aristotle, as the Commentator aforesaid pretends, to say that it is not yet clear whether intellect be soul at all, as it is clear of other and lower vital principles. For the old text has not, “Nothing has been declared,” or “Nothing has been said,” but “Nothing is clear,” which is to be understood as referring to the peculiar properties of intellect, not to the general definition (of soul). But if, as the Commentator says, the word ‘soul’ is used not in the same sense of intellect and other varieties, Aristotle would have first distinguished the ambiguity and then made his definition, as his manner is: otherwise his argument would rest on an ambiguity, an intolerable procedure in demonstrative sciences.
3. Aristotle reckons ‘intellect’ among the ‘faculties’ of the soul. Also, in the passage last quoted, he names ‘the speculative faculty.’ Intellect therefore is not outside the human soul, but is a faculty thereof.
4. Also, when beginning to speak of the potential intellect, he calls it a part of the soul, saying: “Concerning the part of the soul whereby the soul has knowledge and intellectual consciousness.”
5. And still more clearly by what follows, declaring the nature of the potential intellect: “I call intellect that whereby the soul thinks and under stands”: in which it is manifestly shown that the intellect is something belonging to the human soul.
The above tenet (of Averroes) therefore is contrary to the mind of Aristotle and contrary to the truth: hence it should be rejected as chimerical.
[lib.2.cap.61.n.1] Quod prædicta positio est contra sententiam Aristotelis. Sed quia huic positioni Averrhoes præstare robur auctoritatis nititur, propter hoc quod dicit Aristotelem ita sensisse, ostendemus manifeste quod prædicta positio est contra sententiam Aristotelis. Primo quidem, quia Aristoteles, De anima, II, c. 1, diffinit animam, dicens quod est « actus primus physici corporis, « organici, potentia vitam habentis, » et postea subjungit quod « hæc est diffinii « tio universaliter dicta de omni anima; » non, sicut prædictus Averrhoes fingit, sub dubitatione hoc proferens, ut patet ex exemplaribus græcis$^2$, et translatione Boetii. Postmodum autem, in eodem capitulo, subjungit esse quasdam partes animæ separabiles, quæ non sunt nisi intellectivæ. Relinquitur igitur quod illæ partes sunt actus corporis. 2. Nec est contra hoc quod postea (c. 11 subjungit: « De intellectu autem et per « spectiva potentia nihil est adhuc ma « nifestum, sed videtur animæ alterum « genus esse. » Non enim per hoc vult intellectum alienare a communi diffinizione animæ, sed a propriis naturis aliarum partium; sicut qui dicit quod alterum genus animalis est volatile a gressibili, non aufert a volatili communem diffinitionem animalis. Unde, ut ostenderet in quo dixerit (alterum), subjungit: « Et hoc solum contingit separari, sicut « perpetuum a corruptibili. » Nec est intentio Aristotelis, ut Commentator prædictus fingit, dicere quod nondum est manifestum de intellectu utrum intellectus sit anima, sicut de aliis principiis. Non enim textus vetus habet « Nihil est declaratum » sive « nihil est dictum » sed « nihil est manifestum »; quod intelligendum est quantum ad id quod est proprium ei, non quantum ad communem diffinitionem. Si autem, ut ipse dicit, anima αquivoce dicitur de intellectu et aliis, primo distinxisset αquivocationem, postea diffinivisset, sicut est consuetudo sua; alias procederet in αquivoco, quod non est in scientiis demonstrativis. 3. Item, In secundo De anima, c. 11, intellectum numerat inter potentias animæ, et in auctoritate etiam prædicta, nominat perspectivam potentiam. Non est igitur intellectus extra animam humanam, sed est quædam potentia ejus. 4. Item in tertio De anima, c. 11, incipiens loqui de intellectu possibili, nominat eum partem animæ, dicens: « De « parte autem animæ, qua cognoscit « anima et sapit; » in quo manifeste ostendit quod intellectus possibili sit aliquid animæ. 6. Adhuc autem manifestius, per id quod postea subjungit$^3$, declarans naturam intellectus possibili, dicens: « Dico autem intellectum quo opinatur « et intelligit anima » (c. 11); in quo manifeste ostendit intellectum esse aliquid animæ humanæ, quo$^4$ anima humana intelligit. Est igitur prædicta positio contra sententiam Aristotelis et contra veritatem; unde tanquam fictitia repudianda est. $^1$ $^2$ $^3$ $^4$ » « Ei δέ τί χοινόν ἐπί πάσης ίψυχής δει λέγειν εἰπη ανή η πρώτη ἐντελέχεια σώματος φιλοκουὺ δργανικου. Καθόλον μεν νυν εἰρηται τί ἐστιν ή ίψυχή » (Aristoteles De anima lib. II, cap. 1. n° 13 et 15.)
Caput 62
[lib.2.cap.62.n.1] CHAPTER LXII—Against the Opinion of Alexander concerning the Potential Intellect
UPON consideration of these words of Aristotle, Alexander determined the potential intellect to be some power in us, that so the general definition of soul assigned by Aristotle might apply to it. But because he could not understand how any subsistent intelligence could be the form of a body, he supposed the aforesaid faculty of potential intellect not to be planted in any subsistent intelligence, but to be the result of some combination of elements in the human body. Thus a definite mode of combination of the components of the human body puts a man in potentiality to receive the influence of the active intellect, which is ever in act, and according to him, is a spiritual being subsisting apart, under which influence man becomes actually intelligent. But that in man whereby he is potentially intelligent is the potential intellect: hence it seemed to Alexander to follow that the potential intellect in us arises from a definite combination of elements. But this statement appears on first inspection to be contrary to the words and argument of Aristotle. For Aristotle shows (De anima, III, iv, 2-4) that the potential intellect is unmingled with the body: but that could not be said of a faculty that was the result of a combination of bodily elements. To meet this difficulty Alexander says that the potential intellect is precisely the ‘predisposition’ (praeparatio, ἐπιτηδεώτης) which exists in human nature to receive the influence of the active intellect; and that this ‘predisposition’ is not any definite sensible nature, nor is it mingled with the body, for it is a relation and order between one thing and another. But this is in manifest disagreement with the mind of Aristotle, as the following reasons show:
3. Aristotle assigns these characteristics to the potential intellect: to be impressed by the intelligible presentation, to receive intelligible impressions, to be in potentiality towards them (De anima, III, iv, 11, 12): all which things cannot be said of any ‘disposition,’ but only of the subject predisposed.
It is therefore contrary to the mind of Aristotle, that the mere ‘predisposition’ should be the potential intellect.
4. An effect cannot stand higher above the material order than its cause. But every cognitive faculty, as such, belongs to the immaterial order. Therefore it is impossible for any cognitive faculty to be caused by a combination of elements. But the potential intellect is the supreme cognitive faculty in us: therefore it is not caused by a combination of elements.
6. No bodily organ can possibly have a share in the act of understanding. But that act is attributed to the soul, or to the man: for we say that the soul understands, or the man through the soul. Therefore there must be in man some principle independent of the body, to be the principle of such an act. But any predisposition, which is the result of a combination of elements, manifestly depends on the body. Therefore no such predisposition can be a principle like the potential intellect, whereby the soul judges and understands.
But if it is said that the principle of the aforesaid operation in us is the intellectual impression actually made by the active intellect, this does not seem to suffice: because when man comes to have actual intellectual cognition from having had such cognition potentially, he needs to understand not merely by some intelligible impression actualising his understanding, but likewise by some intellectual faculty as the principle of such activity. Besides, an impression is not in actual understanding except so far as it is purified from particular and material being. But this cannot happen so long as it remains in any material faculty, that is to say, in any faculty either caused by material principles or actualising a material organ. Therefore there must be posited in us some immaterial intellectual faculty, and that is the potential intellect.
[lib.2.cap.62.n.1] Contra opinionem Alexandri de intellectu possibili. His igitur verbis Aristotelis consideratis, Alexander posuit intellectum possi-bilem esse aliquam virtutem in nobis, ut sic diffinitio communis de anima assignata ab Aristotele, De anima, II, c. 1, possit sibi convenire. Quia vero intelligere non poterat aliquam substantiam intellectualem esse corporis formam, posuit prædictam virtutem non esse fundatam in aliqua intellectuali substantia, sed consequentem commixtionem elementorum in corpore humano. Determinatus enim mixtionis humani corporis modus facit hominem esse in potentia ad recipiendum influentiam intellectus agentis, qui semper est in actu, et, secundum ipsum, est quædam substantia separata; ex qua influentia homo fit intelligens actu. Id autem in homine per quod est potentia intelligens, est intellectus possibilis; et sic videbatur sequi quod ex commixtione determinata in nobis fit intellectus possibilis. Videtur autem primo aspectu hæc posi-tio verbis et demonstrationi Aristotelis esse contraria. Ostendit enim Aristoteles, De anima, III, c. iv et v, ut dictum est, quod intellectus possibilis est immixtus corpori. Hoc autem est impossibile dici de aliqua virtute consequente mixtionem elementorum; quod enim hujusmodi est oportet quod in ipsa elementorum commixtione fundetur; sicut videmus de sapore et odore et aliis hujusmodi. Non igitur positio prædicta Alexandri potest stare cum verbis et demonstratione Aristotelis, ut videtur. Ad hæc autem Alexander dicit quod intellectus possibilis est ipsa præparatio in natura humana ad recipiendum influentiam intellectus agentis; præparatio autem ipsa non est aliqua natura sensibilis determinata, neque est mixta corpori; est enim relatio quædam et ordo unius ad aliud. Sed hoc manifeste discordat ab intentione Aristotelis. 1. Probat enim Aristoteles, De anima III, c. iv, ex hoc, intellectum possibilem non habere determinate aliquam naturam sensibilium, et per consequens non esse mixtum corpori, quia est receptivus omnium formarum sensibilium et cognoscitivus earum; quod de præparatione non potest intelligi, quia ejus non est recipere, sed magis præparari. Non igitur demonstratio Aristotelis procedit de præparatione, sed de aliquo recipiente præparato. 2. Amplius, Si ea quæ dicit Aristoteles de intellectu possibili conveniunt ei in quantum est præparatio, et non ex natura subjecti præparati, sequetur quod omni præparationi conveniant. In sensu autem est præparatio quædam ad sensibilia in actu recipienda. Ergo idem dicendum est de sensu et intellectu possibili; cujus contrarium manifeste subjungit Aristoteles, De anima, III, c. iv, ostendens differentiam inter receptionem sensus et intellectus, ex hoc quod sensus corrumpitur ex excellentia objectorum, non autem intellectus. 3. Item, Aristoteles attribuit possibili intellectui pati ab intelligibili, suscipere species intelligibiles, esse in potentia ad eas; comparat etiam eum tabulæ in qua nihil est scriptum, De anima, III, c. iv. Quæ quidem omnia non possunt dici de præparatione, sed de subjecto præparato. Est igitur contra intentionem Aristotelis quod intellectus possibilis sit præparatio ipsa. 4. Adhuc, Agens est nobilius patiente et faciens facto, sicut actus potentia. Quanto autem aliquid est immaterialius, tanto est nobilius. Non potest igitur effectus esse immaterialior sua causa. Omnis autem virtus cognoscitiva, in quantum hujusmodi, est immaterialis; unde et de sensu, qui est infimus in ordine virtutum cognoscitivarum, dicit Aristoteles, De anima, III, c. viii, quod est susceptivus sensibilium specierum sine materia. Impossibile est igitur a commixtione elementorum causari aliquam virtutem cognoscitivam. Intellectus autem possibilis est suprema virtus cognoscitiva in nobis; dicit enim Aristoteles, De anima, III, c. iv, quod intellectus possibilis est quo cognoscit et intelligit anima. Intellectus igitur possibilis non causatur ex commixtione elementorum. 5. Amplius, Si principium alicujus operationis ab aliquibus causis procedit, oportet operationem illam non exceedere causas illas, quum causa secunda agat virtute primæ. Operatio autem animæ nutritivæ etiam excedit virtutem qualitatum elementarium; probat enim Aristoteles, De anima, II, c. iv, quod ignis non est causa augmenti, sed concausa aliquo modo; principalis autem causa est anima, ad quam comparatur calor sicut instrumentum ad artificem. Non igitur potest anima vegetabilis produci ex commixtione elementorum; multo igitur minus sensus et intellectus possibilis. 6. Item, Intelligere est quædam operatio in qua impossibile est communicare aliquod organum corporeum. Hæc autem operatio attribuitur animæ vel etiam homini; dicitur enim quod anima intelligit vel homo per animam. Oportet igitur aliquod principium in homine esse a corpore non dependens, quod sit principium talis operationis. Præparatio autem sequens commixtionem elementorum a corpore dependet manifeste. Non est igitur præparatio tale principium quale intellectus possibilis; dicit enim Aristoteles, De anima, III, c. iv, quod intellectus possibilis est quo anima opinatur et intelligit. Non est igitur intellectus possibilis præparatio. Si autem dicatur quod principium prædictæ operationis in nobis est species intelligibilis facta in actu ab intellectu agente, hoc non videtur sufficere, quia, quum homo de potentia intelligente fiat actu intelligens, oportet quod non solum intelligat per speciem intelligibilem per quam fit actu intelligens, sed per aliquam potentiam intellectivam quæ sit prædictæ operationis principium, sicut et in sensu accidit. Hæc autem potentia ab Aristotele ponitur intellectus possibilis. Intellectus igitur possibilis est non dependens a corpore. Præterea, species non est intelligibilis actu, nisi secundum quod est depurata ab esse materiali. Hoc autem non potest accidere dum fuerit in aliqua potentia materiali, quæ scilicet sit causata ex principiis materialibus, vel quæ sit actus materialis organi. Oportet igitur poni aliquam potentiam intellectivam in nobis immaterialem, quæ est intellectus possibilis. 7. Adhuc, Intellectus possibilis ab Aristotele, De anima, III, c. iv, dicitur pars animæ. Anima autem non est præparatio, sed actus; præparatio enim est ordo potentiæ ad actum; sequitur tamen ad actum aliqua præparatio ad ulteriorem actum, sicut ad actum diaphaneitatis sequitur ordo ad actum lucis. Intellectus igitur possibilis non est ipsa præparatio, sed actus quidam. 8. Amplius, Homo consequitur speciem et naturam humanam secundum partem animæ sibi propriam, quæ quidem est intellectus possibilis. Nihil autem consequitur speciem et naturam secundum quod est in potentia, sed secundum quod est actu. Quum igitur præparatio nihil sit aliud quam ordo potentiæ ad actum, impossibile est quod intellectus possibilis non sit aliud quam præparatio quædam in natura humana exsistens.
Caput 64
[lib.2.cap.64.n.1] CHAPTER LXIV—That the Soul is not a Harmony
THE maintainers of this view did not mean that the soul is a harmony of sounds, but a harmony of contrary elements, whereof they saw living bodies to be composed. The view is rejected for the following reasons:
1. You may find such a harmony in any body, even a mere chemical compound (corpus mixtum). A harmony cannot move the body, or govern it, or resist the passions, as neither can a temperament. Also a harmony, and a temperament also, admits of degrees. All which considerations go to show that the soul is neither harmony nor temperament.
2. The notion of harmony rather befits qualities of the body than the soul: thus health is a harmony of humours; strength, of muscles and bones; beauty, of limb and colour. But it is impossible to assign any components, the harmony of which would make sense, or intellect, or other appurtenances of the soul.
3. Harmony may mean either the composition itself or the principle of composition. Now the soul is not a composition, because then every part of the soul would be composed of certain parts of the body, an arrangement which cannot be made out. In like manner the soul is not the principle of composition, because to different parts of the body there are different principles of composition, or proportions of elements, which would require the
several parts of the body to have so many several souls, — one soul for bone, one for flesh, one for sinew; which is evidently not the case.
[lib.2.cap.64.n.1] Quod anima non sit harmonia. Similis autem prædictæ positioni est positio dicentium animam esse harmoniam. Non enim intellexerunt animam esse harmoniam sonorum, sed contrario-rum ex quibus videbant componi corpora animata. Quæ quidem opinio in primo libro De anima c. iv, videtur attribui Empedocli; Gregorius autem Nyssenus attribuit eam Dinarcho. Unde et improbatur sicut et præcedens, et adhuc propriis rationibus. 1. Omne enim corpus mixtum harmoniam habet et complexionem; nec harmonia potest movere corpus aut regere ipsum vel repugnare passionibus, sicut et complexio; intenditur etiam et remittitur, sicut et complexio. Ex quibus omnibus ostenditur quod anima non sit harmonia, sicut nec complexio. 2. Adhuc, Ratio harmoniæ magis convenit qualitatibus corporis quam animæ; nam sanitas est quædam harmonia humorum; fortitudo nervorum et ossium; pulchritudo membrorum et colorum. Non autem potest assignari qualium harmonia sit sensus aut intellectus et cætera quæ ad animam pertinent. Non est igitur anima harmonia. 3. Amplius, Harmonia dicitur dupliciter: uno modo, ipsa compositio; alio modo, ratio compositionis. Anima autem non est compositio, quia oporteret quod unaquæque pars animæ esset compositio aliquarum partium corporis; quod non est assignare. Similiter non est ratio compositionis, quia, quum in diversis partibus corporis sint diversæ rationes seu proportiones compositionis, singulæ partes corporis haberent singulas animas; aliam enim animam haberet os et caro et nervus, quum sint secundum diversam proportionem composita; quod patet esse falsum. Non est igitur anima harmonia.
Caput 65
[lib.2.cap.65.n.1] CHAPTER LXV—That the Soul is not a Body
LIVING beings are composed of matter and form, — of a body, and of a soul which makes them actually alive. One of these components must be the form, and the other the matter. But a body cannot be a form, because a body is not in another as in its matter and subject. Therefore the soul must be the form: therefore it is not a body.
5. The act of understanding cannot be the act of anything corporeal. But it is an act of the soul. Therefore the intellectual soul at least is not a body.
It is easy to solve the arguments whereby some have endeavoured to prove that the soul is a body. They point such facts as these, — that the son resembles the father even in the accidents of his soul, being generated from the father by severance of bodily substance; and that the soul suffers with the body; and is separated from the body, separation supposing previous bodily contact. Against these instances we observe that bodily temperament is a sort of predisposing cause of affections of the soul: that the soul suffers with the body only accidentally, as being the form of the body: also that the soul is separated from the body, not as touching from touched, but as form from matter; although there is a certain contact possible between an incorporeal being and the body, as has been shown above (Chap. ).
Many have been moved to this position by their belief that what is not a material body has no existence, being unable to transcend the imagination, which deals only with material bodies. Hence this opinion is proposed in the person of the unwise: The breath of our nostrils is smoke, and reason a spark in the beating of the heart (Wisdom ii, 2).
[lib.2.cap.65.n.1] Quod anima non sit corpus. Fuerunt autem et alii magis errantes, ponentes animam esse corpus; quorum opiniones licet fuerint diversæ et variæ, sufficit eas hic communiter reprobare. 1. Viventia enim, quum sint quædam res naturales, sunt composita ex materia et forma. Componuntur autem ex corpore et anima quæ facit viventia actu. Igitur oportet alterum istorum esse formam et alterum materiam. Corpus autem non po-test esse forma, quia corpus non est in altero sicut in materia et subjecto. Anima igitur erit forma; ergo non est corpus, quum nullum corpus sit forma, 2. Adhuc, Impossibile est duo corpora esse simul. Anima autem non est seorsum a corpore, dum vivit. Non est igitur anima corpus. 3. Amplius, Omne corpus divisibile est. Omne autem divisibile indiget aliquo continente et uniente partes ejus. Si igitur anima sit corpus, habebit aliquid aliud « Quoniam vero etiam Dinarchus animam harmoniam definierit, et Simias adversans Socrati animam concentum (ἀρμονίαν) esse dixerit, asse-rens similem eam esse harmonia, corpus vero lyræ; exponendæ sunt solutiones horum, quæ in Platonis Phædone leguntur. » (De anima, sermon. 1, tom. II, col. 194, circ. fin.) « Dinarchus (animam esse contendit) harmoniam quatuor elementorum, (et eam) substantia-lem putat. » (De anima, sermon. 1, tom. II, col. 187.) continens, et illud magis erit anima; videmus enim, anima recedente, corpus dissolvi. Et si hoc iterum sit divisibile, oportebit vel devenire ad aliquod indivisibile et incorporeum, quod erit anima; vel erit in infinitum procedere, quod est impossibile. Non est igitur anima corpus. 4. Item, Sicut supra (c. xlix) probatum est, et in octavo Physicorum, c. iv, probatur, omne movens seipsum componitur ex duobus, quorum alterum est movens et non motum, et alterum est motum. Sed animal est movens seipsum; movens autem in ipso est anima, motum corpus. Anima igitur est movens non motum. Nullum autem corpus movet nisi motum, ut supra (l. I, c. xii) probatum est. Anima igitur non est corpus. 5. Præterea, Supra (c. lxii) ostensum est quod intelligere non potest esse actio alicujus corporis. Est autem actus animæ, Anima igitur, ad minus intellectiva, non est corpus. Ea autem quibus aliqui conati sunt probare animam esse corpus facile est solvere. Ostendunt enim animam esse corpus per hoc quod filius assimilatur patri, etiam in accidentibus animæ, quum tamen filius generetur a patre per decisionem corporalem; et quia anima compatitur corpori; et quia separatur a corpore; separari autem est corporum se tangentium. Sed contra hoc jam dictum est (c. lxiii in calce) quod complexio corporis est aliquiter causa animæ passionum per modum disponentis; anima etiam non compatitur corpori nisi per accidens, quia, cum sit forma corporis, movetur per accidens, moto corpore; separatur etiam anima a corpore, non sicut tangens a tacto, sed sicut forma a materia, quamvis et aliquis tactus sit incorporei ad corpus, ut supra (c. lvi) ostensum est. Movit etiam ad hanc positionem multos, quia crediderunt quod non est corpus non esse, imaginationem transcendere non valentes, quæ solum circa corpora versatur. Unde hæc opinio ex persona insipientium proponitur, dicentium de anima: Fumus flatus est in naribus nostris, et sermo scintillæ ad movendum * cor, Sap. ii, 2.
Caput 66
[lib.2.cap.66.n.1] CHAPTER LXVI—Against those who suppose Intellect and Sense to be the same
SENSE is found in all animals, but animals other than man have no intellect: which is proved by this, that they do not work, like intellectual agents, in diverse and opposite ways, but just as nature moves them fixed and uniform specific activities, as every swallow builds its nest in the same way.
2. Sense is cognisant only of singulars, but intellect is cognisant of universals.
3. Sensory knowledge extends only to bodily things, but intellect takes cognisance of things incorporeal, as wisdom, truth, and the relations between objects.
4. No sense has reflex knowledge of itself and its own activity: the sight does not see itself, nor see that it sees. But intellect is cognisant of itself, and knows that it understands.
[lib.2.cap.66.n.1] Contra ponentes intellectum et sensum esse idem. His autem propinquum fuit quod quidam antiquorum philosophorum intellectum a sensu non differre opinabantur; quod quidem impossibile est. 1. Sensus enim in omnibus animalibus inventur. Alia autem animalia ab homine intellectum non habent; quod ex hoc apparet quia non operantur diversa et opposita, quasi intellectum habentia, sed sicut a natura mota ad determinatas quasdam operationes et uniformes in eadem specie, sicut omnis hirundo similiter nidificat. Non est igitur idem intellectus et sensus. 2. Adhuc, sensus non est cognoscitivus nisi singularium; cognoscit enim omnis sensitiva potentia per species individuales, quum recipiat species rerum in organis corporalibus. Intellectus autem est cognoscitivus universalium, ut per experimentum patet. Differt igitur intellectus a sensu. 3. Amplius, Cognitio sensus non se extendit nisi ad corporalia; quod ex hoc patet quod qualitates sensibiles, quæ sunt propria objecta sensuum, non sunt nisi in corporalibus; sine eis autem sensus nihil cognoscit. Intellectus autem cognoscit incorporalia, sicut sapientiam, veritatem et relationes rerum. Non est igitur idem intellectus et sensus. 4. Item, Nullus sensus seipsum cognoscit nec suam operationem; visus enim non videt seipsum nec videt se videre; sed hoc superioris potentiae est, ut probatur in secundo De anima. Intellectus autem cognoscit seipsum et cognoscit se intelligere. Non est igitur idem intellectus et sensus. 5. Præterea, Sensus corrumpitur ab excellenti sensibili. Intellectus autem non corrumpitur ab intelligibilis excellentia; quin imo qui intelligit majora potest melius postmodum minora intelligere. Est igitur alia virtus sensitiva et intellectiva.
Caput 67
[lib.2.cap.67.n.1] CHAPTER LXVII—Against those who maintain that the Potential Intellect is the Phantasy
PHANTASY is found in other animals besides man, the proof of which is that, as objects of sense recede from sense, these animals still shun or pursue them. But intellect is not in them, as no work of intelligence appears in their conduct.
2. Phantasy is only of things corporeal and singular; but intellect, of things universal and incorporeal.
4. Intelligence is not the actualisation of any bodily organ. But phantasy has a fixed bodily organ.
Hence it is said: Who teacheth us above the beasts of the earth, and above the fowls of the air instructeth us (Job xxxv, 11): whereby we are given to understand that there is in man a certain cognitive power, above the sense and fancy that are in other animals.
[lib.2.cap.67.n.1] Contra ponentes intellectum possibile esse imaginationem. Huic autem opinioni affine fuit quod quidam posuerunt, intellectum possibilem non esse aliud quod imaginationem; quod quidem patet esse falsum. 1. Imaginatio enim est etiam in aliis animalibus; cujus signum est quod, abeuntibus sensibilibus, fugiunt vel persequuntur ea; quod non esset, nisi in eis imaginaria apprehensio sensibilium remaneret. Intellectus autem in eis non est, quum nullum opus intellectus in eis appareat. Non est igitur idem intellectus et imaginatio. 2. Adhuc, Imaginatio non est nisi corporalium et singularium, quum phantasia sit motus factus a sensu secundum actum, ut dicitur in tertio De anima, c. iii. Intellectus autem universalium et incorporalium est. Non est igitur intellectus possibilis imaginatio. 3. Amplius, Impossibile est idem esse movens et motum. Sed phantasmata movent intellectum possibile, sicut sensibilia sensum, ut Aristoteles dicit, De anima, III, c. iii et iv. Impossibile est igitur quod sit idem intellectus possibilis et imaginatio. 4. Præterea, Probatum est, in tertio De anima, c. iv, quod intellectus non est actus alicujus partis corporis. Imaginatio autem habet organum corporale determinatum. Non est igitur idem imaginatio et intellectus possibilis. Hinc est quod dicitur: Qui docet nos super jumenta terræ, et super volucres cæli erudit nos, Job, xxxv, 11; per quod datur intelligi quod hominis est aliqua virtus cognoscitiva supra sensum et imaginationem quæ sunt in aliis animalibus.
Caput 68
[lib.2.cap.68.n.1] CHAPTER LXVIII—How a Subsistent Intelligence may be the Form of a Body
If a subsistent intelligence is not united with a body merely as its mover, as Plato thought (); nor is the intellect, whereby man understands, a predisposition in human nature, as Alexander said (Chap. ; nor a temperament, as Galen (Chap. ); nor a harmony, as Empedocles (Chap. ); nor a body, nor a sense, nor a phantasy (Chapp. , , ); it remains that the human soul is a subsistent intelligence, united with the body as its form: which may be thus made manifest.
There are two requisites for one thing to be the substantial form of another. One requisite is that the form be the principle of substantial being to that whereof it is the form: I do not mean the effective, but the formal principle, whereby a thing is and is denominated ‘being.’ The second requisite is that the form and matter should unite in one ‘being’; namely, in that being wherein the substance so composed subsists. There is no such union of the effective principle with that to which it gives being. A subsistent intelligence, as shown in Chap. , is not hindered by the fact that it is subsistent from communicating its being to matter, and becoming the formal principle of the said matter. There is no difficulty in the identification of the being, in virtue of which the compound subsists, with the form itself of the said
compound, since the compound is only through the form, and neither subsist apart.
It may be objected that a subsistent intelligence cannot communicate its being to a material body in such a way that there shall be one being of the subsistent intelligence and the material body: for things of different kinds have different modes of being, and nobler is the being of the nobler substance. This objection would be in point, if that being were said to belong to that material thing in the same way in which it belongs to that subsistent intelligence. But it is not so: for that being belongs to that material body as to a recipient subject raised to a higher state; while it belongs to that subsistent intelligence as to its principle and by congruence of its own nature.
In this way a wonderful chain of beings is revealed to our study. The lowest member of the higher genus is always found to border close upon the highest member of the lower genus. Thus some of the lowest members of the genus of animals attain to little beyond the life of plants, certain shellfish for instance, which are motionless, have only the sense of touch, and are attached to the ground like plants. Hence Dionysius says: “Divine wisdom has joined the ends of the higher to the beginnings of the lower.” Thus in the genus of bodies we find the human body, composed of elements equally tempered, attaining to the lowest member of the class above it, that is, to the human soul, which holds the lowest rank in the class of subsistent intelligences. Hence the human soul is said to be on the horizon and boundry line between things corporeal and incorporeal, inasmuch as it is an incorporeal substance and at the same time the form of a body.
Above other forms there is found a form, likened to the supramundane substances in point of understanding, and competent to an activity which is accomplished without any bodily organ at all; and this is the intellectual soul: for the act of understanding is not done through any bodily organ. Hence the intellectual soul cannot be totally encompassed by matter, or immersed in it, as other material forms are: this is shown by its intellectual activity, wherein bodily matter has no share. The fact however that the very act of understanding in the human soul needs certain powers that work through bodily organs, namely, phantasy and sense, is a clear proof that the said soul is naturally united to the body to make up the human species.
[lib.2.cap.68.n.1] Qualiter substantia intellectualis possit esse corporis forma. Ex præmissis igitur rationibus conclude possumus quod intellectualis substantia potest corpori uniri ut forma. Si enim substantia intellectualis non unitur corpori solum ut motor, ut Plato posuit (c. lvii); neque continuatur ei solum per phantasmata, ut dixit Averrhoes (c. lx), sed ut forma; neque tamen intellectus, quo homo intelligit, est præ- Hoc autem convenienter diceretur, si eodem modo illud esse materiae esset sicut esse substantia intellectualis. Non est autem ita; est enim esse materiae corporalis ut recipientis et subjecti ad aliquid altius elevati, substantia autem intellectualis ut principii et secundum propriæ naturæ congruentiam. Nihil igitur prohibet substantiam intellectualem esse formam corporis humani, quæ est anima humana. Hoc autem modo mirabilis rerum connexio considerari potest. Semper enim « Quia anima intellectiva inter substantias spirituales plus potentialitatis et inter corporales plus actualitatis habet, ideo potest uniri materiae corporali ratione suæ potentialitatis, et per se subsistere ratione actualitatis. Cum enim anima paratio in humana natura, ut dixit Alexander (c. lxii); neque complexio, ut Galenus (c. liii); neque harmonia, ut Empedocles (c. liv); neque corpus vel sensus vel imaginatio, ut antiqui dixerunt (c. lxv, lxvi, et lxvii); relinquitur quod anima humana sit intellectualis substantia corpori unita ut forma; quod quidem sic potest fieri manifestum: Ad hoc enim quod aliquid sit forma substantialis alterius, duo requiruntur. Quorum unum est ut forma sit principium essendi substantialiter ei cujus est forma; principium autem dico non effectivum, sed formale, quo aliquid est et denominatur ens. Unde sequitur aliud, scilicet quod forma et materia conveniant in uno esse; quod non contingit de principio effectivo cum eo cui dat esse; et hoc esse est in quo subsistit substantia composita, quæ est una secundum esse ex materia et forma constans. Non autem impeditur substantia intellectualis, per hoc quod est subsistens, ut probatum est (c. lvi), esse formale principium essendi materiae, quasi esse suum communicans materiae; non est enim inconveniens quod idem sit esse in quo subsistit compositum et forma ipsa, quum compositum non sit nisi per formam, nec seorsum utrumque subsistat. Potest autem objici quod substantia intellectualis esse suum materiae corporali communicare non possit, ut sit unum esse substantia intellectualis et materiae corporalis; diversorum enim generum est diversus modus essendi, et nobilioris substantia nobilius esse. Hoc autem convenienter diceretur, si eodem modo illud esse materiae esset sicut esse substantia intellectualis. Non est autem ita; est enim esse materiae corporalis ut recipientis et subjecti ad aliquid altius elevati, substantia autem intellectualis ut principii et secundum propriæ naturæ congruentiam. Nihil igitur prohibet substantiam intellectualem esse formam corporis humani, quæ est anima humana. Hoc autem modo mirabilis rerum connexio considerari potest. Semper enim invenitur infimum supremi generis contingere supremum inferioris generis; sicut quædam infima in genere animalium parum excedunt vitam plantarum, sicut ostrea quæ sunt immobilia et solum tactum habent et terræ in modum plantarum stringuntur 1; unde et beatus Dionysius dicit, De divinis nomin., c. vii, quod « divina sapientia conjungit fines superiorum principiis inferiorum. » Est igitur accipere aliquid in genere corporum, scilicet corpus humanum, æqualiter complexionatum, quod attingit ad infimum superioris generis, scilicet ad animam humanam quæ tenet ultimum gradum in genere intellectualium substantiarum, ut ex modo intelligendi percipi potest. Et inde est quod anima intellectualis dicitur esse quasi quidam horizon et confinium corporeorum et incorporeorum, in quantum est substantia incorporea, corporis tamen forma. Non autem minus est aliquid unum ex substantia intellectuali et materia corporali quam ex forma ignis et ejus materia; sed forte magis, quia quanto forma magis vincit materiam, tanto ex ea et materia magis efficitur unum. Quamvis autem sit unum esse formæ et materiae, non tamen oportet quod materia semper adæquet esse formæ; imo quanto forma est nobilior, tanto in suo esse semper excedit materiam; quod patet inspicienti operationes formarum, ex quarum consideratione earum naturas cognoscimus. Unumquodque enim operatur secundum quod est; unde forma cujus operatio excedit conditionem materiae, et ipsa, secundum dignitatem sui esse, superexcedit materiam. Invenimus enim aliquas infimas formas, quæ in nullam operationem possunt nisi ad quam se extendunt qualitates quæ sunt dispositiones materiae, ut calidum, frigidum, humidum, siccum, rarum, densum, grave et leve, et his similia, sicut formæ elementorum; unde istæ sunt formæ modo similitudines rapiat. Nec hoc facit aliquam ignobilitatem in ipsam quia sic unitur corpori, quod ei esse suum communicat; communicare autem esse suum alteri nullam dicit imperfectionem. » (Ex cod. G. de F.) « Ipsa (sapientia) est semper fines priorum connectens principiis secundorum. » (Ex translat. Johan. Scoti.) « Ipsa (sapientia divina) est semper fines priorum conjungens principiis secundorum. » (Ex translat. Johan. Sarraceni.) « Est agnoscenda (divina sapientia) quoniam ipsa, secundum Scripturam, est omnium effectrix, quæque semper erat cuncta componens, Prov. viii, 30, et indissolubilis rerum omnium connexionis ordinisque causa, quia perque fines praecedentium cum principiis sequentium connectit, unicamque totius universi concordiam et consonantiam concinnat. » (Ex translat. Balthaz. Corderii, apud Migne, op. S. Dionysii Areop. t. I, col. 871; De divinis nominibus, cap. viii, § iii.) tiva et excedit materiae conditionem corporalis, non sit totaliter comprehensum a materia aut ei immersum, sicut aliæ formæ materiales; quod ejus operatio intellectualis ostendit, in qua non communicat materia corporalis. Quia tamen ipsum intelligere animæ humanæ indiget potentiis quæ per quaedam organa corporalia operantur, scilicet imaginazione et sensu, ex hoc ipso declaratur quod naturaliter unitur corpori ad complendam speciem humanam.
Caput 69
[lib.2.cap.69.n.1] CHAPTER LXIX—Solution of the Arguments alleged to show that a Subsistent Intelligence cannot be united with a Body as the Form of that Body
The arguments wherewith Averroes endeavours to establish his opinion do not prove that the subsistent intelligence is not united with the body as the form of the same.
1. The words of Aristotle about the potential intellect, that it is “impassible, unmixed, and separate,” do not necessitate the admission that the intellectual substance is not united with the body as its form, giving it being. They are sufficiently verified by saying that the intellectual faculty, which Aristotle calls the ‘speculative faculty,’ is not the actualisation of any organ, as exercising its activity through that organ.
2. Supposing the substance of the soul to be united in being with the body as the form of the body, while still the intellect is not the actualisation of any organ, it does not follow that intellect falls under the law of physical determination, as do sensible and material things: for we do not suppose intellect to be a harmony, or function (ratio, γόλος) of any organ, as Aristotle says that sense is.
3. That Aristotle is saying that the intellect is ‘unmingled,’ or ‘separate,’ does not intend to exclude it from being a part, or faculty, of the soul, which soul is the form of the whole body, is evident from this passage, where he is arguing against those who said that there were different parts of the soul in different parts of the body: — “If the whole soul keeps together the body as a whole, it is fitting that each part of the soul should keep together some part of the body: but this looks like an impossibility: for it is difficult even to imagine what part of the body the intellect shall keep together, or how.”
[lib.2.cap.69.n.1] Solutio rationum quibus supra probatur quod substantia intellectualis non potest corpori uniri ut forma. His autem consideratis, non est difficile solvere quæ contra prædictam unionem supra posita sunt (c. lvii). 1. In prima enim ratione falsum supponitur; non enim corpus et anima sunt duæ substantia actu existentes, sed ex eis duobus fit una substantia actu existens; corpus enim hominis non est idem actu, præsente anima et absente, sed anima facit ipsum actu esse. 2. Quod autem secundo objicitur, formam et materiam in eodem genere contineri, non sic verum est quasi utrumque sit species unius generis, sed quia sunt principia ejusdem speciei. Sic igitur substantia intellectualis et corpus, quæ, seorsum existentia, essent diversorum generum species, prout uniuntur, sunt unius generis ut principia. 3. Non autem oportet substantiam intellectualem esse formam materialem, quamvis esse ejus sit in materia, ut tertia ratio procedebat; non enim est in materia sicut materiae immersa vel a materia totaliter comprehensa, sed alio modo, ut dictum est (c. lviii). 4. Nec tamen, per hoc quod substantia intellectualis unitur corpori ut forma, removetur quod a philosophis dicitur, De anima, III, c. iv, intellectum esse a corpore separatum; et est quarta ratio. Est enim in anima considerare et ipsius essentiam et potentiam ejus. Secundum essentiam quidem suam, dat esse tali corpori; secundum potentiam vero, operationes proprias efficit. Si igitur operatio animæ per organum corporale completur, oportet quod potentia animæ, quæ est illius operationis principium, sit actus illius partis corporis per quam operatio ejus completur, sicut visus est actus oculi. Si autem operatio ejus non compleatur per organum corporale, potentia ejus non erit actus alicujus corporis; et per hoc dicitur intellectus esse separatus, non quin substantia animæ, cujus est potentia intellectus, nec anima intellectiva sit corporis actus ut forma dans tali corpori esse. 5. Non est autem necessarium, si anima secundum suam substantiam est forma corporis, quod omnis ejus operatio sit per corpus, ac per hoc omnis ejus virtus sit alicujus corporis actus, ut quinta ratio procedebat. Jam enim ostensum est, (c. lxviii) quod animahumana non sit talis forma quæ sit totaliter immersa materiae, sed est inter omnes alias formas maxime supra materiam elevata; unde et operationem producere potest absque corpore, id est quasi non dependens a corpore in operando, quia nec etiam in essendo dependet a corpore. Eodem etiam modo patet quod ea quibus Averrhoes suam opinionen confirmare nititur non probant substantiam intellectualem corpori non uniri ut formam. 1. Verba enim Aristotelis, quæ dicit, De anima, III, c. iv et v, de intellectu possibili, quod est impassibilis et immixtus et separatus, non cogunt confiteri quod substantia intellectiva non sit unita corpori ut forma dans esse. Verificantur enim, etiam si dicatur quod intellectiva potentia, quam Aristoteles vocat potentiam perspectivam, De anima, II, c. xii, non sit alicujus organi actus quasi per ipsum suam exercens operationem; et hoc etiam sua demonstratio declarat; ex operatione enim intellectuali, qua anima intelligit, ostendit ipsum immixtum esse vel separatum; operatio autem pertinet ad potentiam ut ad principium. 2. Unde patet quod nec demonstratio Aristotelis hoc conclusit quod substantia intellectiva non uniatur corpori sicut forma. Si enim ponamus substantiam animaæ, secundum esse, corpori sic unitam, intellectum autem nullius organi actum esse, non sequitur quod intellectus haeat aliquam naturam determinatam (de naturis dico sensibilium), quum non ponatur harmonia vel ratio alicujus organi, sicut de sensu dicit Aristoteles, De anima, II, c. xii, quod est quaedam ratio organi; non enim habet intellectus operationem communem cum corpore. 3. Quod autem, per hoc quod Aristoteles dicit intellectum esse immixtum vel separatum, non intendat excludere ipsum esse partem sive potentiam animæ quæ est forma totius corporis, patet per hoc quod dicit in fine primi De anima, contra illos qui dicebant animam in diversis partibus corporis diversas sui partes habere: « Si tota anima omne corpus continet, convenit et partium unamquamque aliquid corporis continere. Hoc autem videtur impossibile; qualem enim partem aut quo modo intellectus continebit, grave est fingere. » 4. Patet etiam quod, ex quo intellectus nullius partis corporis actus est, non sequitur receptionem ejus esse receptionem materiæ primæ; ex quo ejus receptio et operatio est omnino absque corporali organo. 5. Nec etiam infinita virtus intellectus tollitur, quum non ponatur virtus in magnitudine, sed in substantia intellectuali fundata, ut dictum est (c. li). CAPUS LXX. Quod, secundum dicta Aristotelis, oportet ponere intellectum uniri corpori ut formam. (I, q. Lxxvi, a. 1.) Et quia Averrhoes maxime nititur suam opinionem confirmare per verba et demonstrationem Aristotelis, ostendendum restat quod necessarium est dicere, secundum opinionem Aristotelis, intellectum secundum suam substantiam alicui corpori uniri ut formam. Probat enim Aristoteles, Phys. VII, c. 1, VIII, c. v, quod in motoribus et motis impossibile est procedere in infinitum; unde concludit quod necesse est devenire ad aliquod primum motum quod vel moveatur ab immobili vel moveat seipsum; et de his duobus accipit secundum, scilicet quod primum mobile moveat seipsum, ea ratione quia quod est per se, semper est prius eo quod est per aliud. Deinde ostendit, Physic. VIII, c. v, quod movens seipsum de necessitate dividitur in duas partes, quarum una est movens et alia est mota. Oportet igitur primum seipsum movens componi ex duabus partibus, quarum una est movens. Omne autem hujusmodi est animatum, secundum opinionem Aristotelis; unde et in secundo De cælo, c. 11, dicitur expresse quod cælum est animatum, et propter hoc oportet in eo ponere differentias positionis, non solum quoad nos, sed etiam secundum se. Inquiramus igitur, secundum opinionem Aristotelis, qua anima sit cælum animatum. Probat etiam, Metaphys. XII, c. VII, quod, in motu cæli, est considerare aliquid quod movet omnino immotum, et aliquid quod movet motum. Id autem quod movet omnino immotum movet sicut desiderabile; nec dubium quin ab eo quod movetur. Ostendit autem quod non sicut desiderabile desiderio concupiscentiæ, quod est desiderium sensus, sed sicut desiderabile intellectuali desiderio; unde dicit quod primum movens non motum est desiderabile et intellectuale. Igitur id quod ab eo movetur, scilicet cælum, est desiderans et intelligens nobiliori modo quam nos, ut subsequenter probat. Est igitur cælum compositum, secundum opinionem Aristotelis, ex anima intellectuali et et corpore; et hoc signat in secundo De anima, c. 11, ubii dicit quod « quibusdam inest intellectum et intellectus, ut hominibus, » et si aliquid alterum hujusmodi est aut » etiam honorabilius, » scilicet cælum. Constat autem quod cælum non habet animam sensitivam, secundum opinionem Aristotelis, De cælo, II, c. 1; haberet enim diversa organa, quæ non competunt simplicitati cæli; et ad hoc signandum subjungit Aristoteles, De anima, II, c. 11, quod quibus de numero corruptibilium inest omnes aliæ potentiæ, ut daret intelligere quod aliqua incorruptibilia habent intellectum, quæ non habent alias potentias animæ, scilicet corpora cælestia. Non poterit igitur dici quod intellectus continuetur corporibus cælestibus per phantasmata; sed oportebit dicere quod intellectus secundum suam substantiam uniatur corpori cælesti ut forma. Sic igitur et corpori humano, quod est inter omnia corpora inferiora nobilissimum et æqualitate suæ complexionis cælo ab omni contrarietate absoluto si- Sed melius, ut in codd. millimum, secundum intentionem Aristotelis, substantia intellectualis unitur, non per aliqua phantasmata, sed ut forma ipsius. Hoc autem quod dictum est de anima-tione cœli non diximus quasi asserendo secundum fidei doctrinam, ad quam nihil pertinet sive sic sive aliter dicatur; unde Augustinus, Enchirid. c. Lviii: « Nec illud quidem certum habeo utrum ad eamdem societatem (scilicet Angelo-rum), pertineant sol et luna et cuncta sidera; quamvis nonnullis lucida esse corpora, non cum sensu vel intelligentia, videantur. »
Caput 73
[lib.2.cap.73.n.1] CHAPTER LXXIII—That the Potential Intellect is not One and the Same in all Men
HENCE it is plainly shown that there is not one and the same potential intellect, belonging to all men who are and who shall be and who have been, as Averroes pretends.
A. 1. It has been shown that the substance of the intellect is united with the human body and is its form (Chap. ). But it is impossible for there
to be one form otherwise than of one matter. Therefore there is not one intellect for all men.
A. 2 and 3. It is not possible for a dog’s soul to enter a wolf’s body, or a man’s soul any other body than the body of a man. But the same proportion that holds between a man’s soul and a man’s body, holds between the soul of this man and the body of this man. It is impossible therefore for the soul of this man to enter any other body than the body of this man. But it is by the soul of this man that this man understands. Therefore there is not one and the same intellect of this man and of that.
A. 4. A thing has being from that source from whence it has unity: for one and being are inseparable. But everything has being by its own form. Therefore the unity of the thing follows the unity of the form. It is impossible therefore for there to be one form of different individual men. But the form of any individual man is his intellectual soul. It is impossible therefore for there to be one intellect of all men.
But if it is said that the sentient soul of this man is other than the sentient soul of that, and so far forth the two are not one man, though there be one intellect of both, such explanation cannot stand. For the proper activity of every being follows upon and is indicative of its species. But as the proper activity of an animal is to feel, so the proper activity of a man is to understand. As any given individual is an animal in that he has feeling, so is he a man by virtue of the faculty whereby he understands. But the faculty whereby the soul understands, or the man through the soul, is the potential intellect. This individual then is a man by the potential intellect. If then this man has another sentient soul than another man, but not another potential intellect, but one and the same, it follows that they are two animals, but not two men.
B. To these arguments the Commentator replies by saying that the potential intellect is conjoined with us through its own form, namely, through an intelligible impression, one subject of which [is the said potential intellect, and one subject again] is the phantasm existing in us, which differs in different men; and thus the potential intellect is multiplied in different men, not by reason of its substance, but by reason of its form.
The nullity of this reply appears by what has been shown above (Chap. ), that it would be impossible for any man to have understanding, if this were the only way in which the potential intellect were conjoined with us. But suppose that the aforesaid conjunction (continuatio) were sufficient to render man intelligent, still the said answer does not solve the arguments already alleged.
B. 1. According to the above exposition, nothing belonging to intellect will remain multiplied as men are multiplied except only the phantasm, or impression in phantasy; and this very phantasm will not be multiplied as it is actually understood, because, as so understood, it is in the potential intellect, and has undergone abstraction of material conditions under the operation of the active intellect; whereas the phantasm, as a potential term of intelligence, does not transcend the grade of the sentient soul.
B. 2. Still the objection holds, that this man will not be differentiated
from that except by the sentient soul; and the awkward consequence follows that this man and that together do not make a plurality of men.
B. 3. Nothing attains its species by what it is potentially, but by what it is actually. But the impression in phantasy, as multiplied in this man and that, has only a potentially intelligible being. Therefore that impression, as so multiplied, does not put any given individual in the species of ‘intelligent animal,’ which is the definition of ‘man.’ Thus it remains true that the specific ratio of ‘man’ is not multiplied in individual men.
B. 4. It is the first and not the second perfection that gives the species to every living thing. But the impression in phantasy is a second perfection; and therefore not from that multiplied impression has man his species.
B. 6. That which puts a man in the species of man must be something abiding in the same individual as long as he remains: otherwise the individual would not be always of one and the same species, but now of one species and now of another. But the impressions of phantasy do not remain always the same in the same man; but new impressions come, and previous impressions perish. Therefore the individual man does not attain his species by any such impression: nor is it anything in the phantasy that conjoins him with the formal principle of his species, which is the potential intellect.
C. But if it is said that the individual does not receive his species by the phantasms themselves, but by the faculties in which the phantasms are, namely, the phantasy, the memory, and the vis cogitativa which is proper to man, and which in the De anima, III, v, Aristotle calls the ‘passive intellect,’ the same awkward consequences still follow.
C. 1. Since the vis cogitativa operates only upon particulars, the impressions of which it puts apart and puts together; and further, since it has a bodily organ through which it acts, it does not transcend the rank of the sentient soul. But in virtue of his sentient soul, as such, man is not a man, but an animal. It still therefore remains true that the element, supposed to be multiplied in us, belongs to man only in his animal capacity.
C. 2. The cogitative faculty, since it acts through an organ, is not the faculty whereby we understand. But the principle whereby we understand is the principle whereby man is man. Therefore no individual is man by virtue of the cogitative faculty: nor does man by that faculty essentially differ from dumb animals, as the Commentator pretends.
C. 3. The cogitative faculty is united to the potential intellect, the principle of human intelligence, only by its action of preparing phantasms for the active intellect to render them actual terms of intelligence and perfections of the potential intellect. But this preliminary activity of the cogitative
faculty does not always remain the same in us. Therefore it cannot be the means whereby man is conjoined with the specific principle of the human species, or made a member of that species.
C. 4. If the potential intellect of this and that man were numerically one and the same, the act of understanding would be one and the same in both which is an impossibility.
D. But if it is said that the act of understanding is multiplied according to the diversity of impressions in phantasy, that supposition cannot stand.
D. 3. For the potential intellect understands a man, not as this individual man, but as man simply, according to the specific essence of the race. But this specific essence remains one, however much impressions in phantasy are multiplied, whether in the same man or in different men. Therefore no multiplication of phantasms can be the cause of multiplication of the act of understanding in the potential intellect, considering the same species; and thus we shall still have numerically one action in different men.
D. 4. The proper subject in which the habit of knowledge resides is the potential intellect. But an accident, so long as it remains specifically one, is multiplied only by coming to reside in different subjects. If then the potential intellect is one in all men, any habit of knowledge specifically the same, say, the habit of grammar, must be numerically the same in all men, which is unthinkable.
E. But to this they say that the subject of the habit of knowledge is not the potential intellect, but the passive intellect and the cogitative faculty (Chap. ): which it cannot be.
E. 1. For, as Aristotle shows in the Ethics (II, i), like acts engender like habits; and like habits reproduce like acts. Now by the acts of the potential intellect there comes to be the habit of knowledge in us; and we are competent for the same acts by possession of the habit of knowledge. Therefore the habit of knowledge is in the potential intellect, not in the passive.
E. 2. Scientific knowledge is of demonstrated conclusions; and demonstrated conclusions, like their premises, are universal truths. Science therefore is in that faculty which takes cognisance of universals. But the passive intellect is not cognisant of universals, but of particular notions.
F. The error of placing the habit of scientific knowledge in the passive intellect seems to have arisen from the observation that men are found more or less apt for the study of science according to the several dispositions of the cogitative faculty and the phantasy.
F. 1. But this aptitude depends on those faculties only as remote conditions: so it also depends on the complexion of the body, as Aristotle says that men of delicate touch and soft flesh are clever. But the proximate principle of the act of speculative understanding is the habit of scientific knowledge: for this habit must perfect the power of understanding to act readily at will, as other habits perfect the powers in which they are.
F. 2. The dispositions of the cogitative faculty and the phantasy regard the object: they regard the phantasm, which is prepared by the efficiency of these faculties readily to become a term of actual understanding under the action of the active intellect. But habits do not condition objects: they condition faculties. Thus conditions that take the edge off terrors are not the habit
of fortitude: fortitude is a disposition of the conative part of the soul to meet terrors. Hence it appears that the habit of knowledge is not in the passive but in the potential intellect.
F. 3. If the potential intellect of all men is one, we must suppose that the potential intellect has always existed, if men have always existed, as Averroists suppose; and much more the active intellect, because agent is more honourable than patient, as Aristotle says (De anima, III, v). But if the agent is eternal, and the recipient eternal, the contents received must be eternal also. Therefore the intellectual impressions have been from eternity in the potential intellect: therefore it will be impossible for it to receive afresh any new intellectual impressions. But the only use of sense and phantasy in the process of understanding is that intellectual impressions may be gathered from them. At this rate then neither sense nor phantasy will be needed for understanding; and we come back to the opinion of Plato, that we do not acquire knowledge by the senses, but are merely roused by them to remember what we knew before.
G. But to this the Commentator replies that intellectual presentations reside in a twofold subject: in one subject, from which they have everlasting being, namely, the potential intellect; in another subject, from which they have a recurring new existence, namely, the phantasm, or impression in phantasy. He illustrates this by the comparison of a sight-presentation, which has also a twofold subject, the one subject being the thing outside the soul, the other the visual faculty. But this answer cannot stand.
G. 1. For it is impossible that the action and perfection of the eternal should depend on anything temporal. But phantasms are temporal things, continually springing up afresh in us from the experience of the senses. Therefore the intellectual impressions, whereby the potential intellect is actuated and brought to activity, cannot possibly depend on phantasms in the way that visual impressions depend on things outside the soul.
G. 2. Nothing receives what it has already got. But before any sensory experience of mine or yours there were intellectual impressions in the
potential intellect: for the generations before us could not have understood had not the potential intellect been reduced to act by intellectual impressions. Nor can it be said that those impressions, formerly received in the potential intellect, have ceased to be: because the potential intellect not only receives, but keeps what it receives: hence it is called the “place of ideas.” Therefore, on this showing, no impressions from our phantasms are received in the potential intellect.
G. 6 and 7. If the potential intellect receives no intellectual impressions from the phantasms that are in us, because it has already received them from the phantasms of those who were before us, then for the like reason we must say that it receives impressions from the phantasms of no generation of men, whom another generation has preceded. But every generation has been preceded by some previous generation, if the world and human society is eternal, as Averroists suppose. Therefore the potential intellect never receives any impressions from phantasms; and from this it seems to follow that the potential intellect has no need of phantasms to understand. But we (nos) understand by the potential intellect. Therefore neither shall we need sense and phantasm for our understanding: which is manifestly false and contrary to the opinion of Aristotle.
For the potential intellect, like every other substance, operates according to the mode of its nature. Now according to its nature it is the form of the body. Hence it understands immaterial things, but views them in some material medium; as is shown by the fact that in teaching universal truths particular examples are alleged, in which what is said may be seen. Therefore the need which the potential intellect has of the phantasm before receiving the intellectual impression is different from that which it has after the impression has been received. Before reception, it needs the phantasm to gather from it the intellectual impression, so that the phantasm then stands to the potential intellect as an object which moves it. But after receiving the impression, of which the phantasm is the vehicle, it needs the phantasm as an instrument or basis of the impression received. Thus by command of the intellect there is formed in the phantasy a phantasm answering to such and such an intellectual impression; and in this phantasm the intellectual impression shines forth as an exemplar in the thing exemplified, or as in an image.
G. 8. If the potential intellect is one for all men and eternal, by this time there must have been received in it the intellectual impressions of all things that have been known by any men whatsoever. Then, as every one of us understands by the potential intellect, — nay, as the act of understanding in each is the act of that potential intellect understanding, — every one of us must understand all that has been understood by any other men whatsoever.
H. To this the Commentator replies that we do not understand by the potential intellect except in so far as it is conjoined with us through the impressions in our phantasy, and that these phantasms are not the same nor
similar amongst all men. And this answer seems to be in accordance with the doctrine that has gone before: for, apart from any affirmation of the unity of the potential intellect, it is true that we do not understand those things, the impressions whereof are in the potential intellect, unless the appropriate phantasms are at hand. But that this answer does not altogether escape the difficulty, may be thus shown.
When the potential intellect has been actualised by the reception of an intellectual impression, it is competent to act of itself: hence we see that, once we have got the knowledge of a thing, it is in our power to consider it again when we wish: nor are we at a loss for lack of phantasms, because it is in our power to form phantasms suitable to the consideration which we wish, unless there happens to be some impediment on the part of the organ, as in persons out of their mind or in a comatose state. But if in the potential intellect there are intellectual impressions of all branches of knowledge, — as we must say, if that intellect is one and eternal, — then the necessity of phantasms for the potential intellect will be the same as in his case who already has knowledge, and wishes to study and consider some point of that knowledge, for that also he could not do without phantasms. Since then every man understands by the potential intellect so far as it is reduced to act by intellectual impressions, so every man should be able on this theory to regard, whenever he would, all the known points of all sciences: which is manifestly false, for at that rate no one would need a teacher. Therefore the potential intellect is not one and eternal.
[lib.2.cap.73.n.1] Quod intellectus possibilis non est unus in omnibus hominibus. (,I q. LXXVII a. II.) Ex praemissis autem evidenter ostenditur non esse unum intellectum possibilem omnium hominum qui sunt et qui erunt et qui fuerunt, ut Averrhoes fingit, De anima, l. III. 1. Ostensum est enim (c. LVII) quod substantia intellectus unitur corpori humano ut forma. Impossibile est autem unam formam esse nisi unius materiæ, quia proprius actus in propria potentia fit; sunt enim ad invicem proportionata. Non est igitur intellectus unus omnium hominum. 2. Adhuc, Unicuique motori debentur propria instrumenta; alia enim sunt instrumenta tibicinis, alia architectonis. Intellectus autem comparatur ad corpus ut motor ipsius, sicut Aristoteles declarat et determinat, De anima, III, c. 1x et x. A, C, D, F, sed male: «Architectoris.» — A, B, C, D, E, F, omittunt: «Hominis.» B, C, D, E, F; etc.: «Quod dicentes.» A, B, C, D, E, F, etc.: Indui. — C, anima, c. iv. Est igitur hoc individuum homo per intellectum possibile. Si igitur hic homo habet aliam animam sensitivam cum alio homine, non autem alium intellectum possibile, sed unum et eumdem, sequitur quod sint duo animalia, sed non duo homines; quod patet impossibile esse. Non igitur est unus intellectus possibilis omnium hominum. His autem rationibus respondet Commentator prædictus, dicens quod intellectus possibilis continuatur nobiscum per formam suam, scilicet per speciem intelligibilem, cujus unum subjectum est phantasma in nobis exsistens, quod est in diversis diversum; et sic intellectus possibilis numeratur in diversis, non ratione suæ substantiæ, sed ratione suæ formæ. Quod autem hæc responsio nulla sit apparet per ea quæ supra (c. lix) dicta sunt. Ostensum est enim supra quod non est possibile hominem intelligere, si sic solum intellectus possibilis continuaretur nobiscum. Dato autem quod prædicta continuatio sufficeret ad hoc quod homo esset intelligens, adhuc responsio dicta rationes suradictas non solvit. 1. Secundum enim dictam positionem, nihil ad intellectum pertinens remanebit numeratum secundum multitudinem hominum, nisi solum phantasma; et hoc ipsum phantasma non erit numeratum secundum quod intellectum est in actu, quia sic est in intellectu possibili et est abstractum a materialibus conditionibus per intellectum agentem. Phantasma autem, secundum quod est intellectum in potentia, non excedit gradum animæ sensitivæ. 2. Adhuc, non remanebit alius hic homo ab illo nisi per animam sensitivam; et sequitur prædictum inconveniens, quod non sint plures homines hic et ille. 3. Præterea, Nihil sortitur speciem per id quod est in potentia, sed per id quod est actu. Phantasma autem, secundum quod est numeratum, est tantum in potentia ad esse intelligibile. Ergo per phantasma, secundum quod numeratur, non sortitur hoc individuum speciem animalis intellectivi, quod est ratio hominis; et sic remanebit illud quod speciem humanam dat non esse numeratum in diversis. 4. Adhuc, Illud per quod speciem sor-titur unumquodque vivens est perfectio prima et non perfectio secunda, ut patet per Aristotelem, De anima, II, c. 1. Phantasma autem non est perfectio prima, sed perfectio secunda; est enim phantasia motus factus a sensu secundum actum, ut dicitur in secundo De anima, c. v. Non igitur est ipsum phantasma quod numeratur, a quo homo speciem habet. 5. Amplius, Phantasmata quæ sunt intellecta in potentia, diversa sunt. Illud autem quo aliquid speciem sortitur oportet esse unum; nam species una est unius. Non igitur per phantasmata, prout ponuntur numerari in diversis ut sunt intellecta in potentia homo speciem sortitur. 6. Item, Illud a quo homo sortitur speciem oportet semper esse manens in eodem individuo dum durat; alias individuum non semper esset unius et ejusdem speciei, sed quandoque hujus, quandoque illius. Phantasmata autem non semper eadem manent in uno homine, sed quædam de novo adveniunt, et quædam præexsistentia abolentur. Individuum igitur hominis neque per phantasma sortitur speciem, neque per ipsum continuatur principio suæ speciei, quod est intellectus possibilis. Si autem dicatur quod hic homo non sortitur speciem ab ipsis phantasmatibus, sed a virtutibus in quibus sunt phantasmata, scilicet imaginativa, memorativa, et cogitativa quæ est propria homini, quam Aristoteles, De anima, III, c. v, passivum intellectum vocat, adhuc sequuntur eadem inconvenientia: 4. Quia, quum virtus cogitativa habeat operationem solum circa particularia quorum intentiones dividit et componit, et habeat organum corporale per quod agit, non transcendit genus animæ sensitivæ. Homo autem ex anima sensitiva non habet quod sit homo, sed quod sit animal. Adhuc igitur relinquitur quod numeretur in nobis solum id quod competit homini in quantum est animal. 2. Præterea, Virtus cogitativa, quum operetur per organum, non est id quo intelligimus, quum intelligere non sit operatio alicujus organi. Id autem quo intelligimus est id quo homo est homo, quum intelligere sit propria operatio hominis, consequens ejus speciem. Non est igitur hoc individuum homo per virtutem cogitativam, neque hæc virtus est id per quod homo substantialiter differt a brutis, ut Commentator prædictus fingit. 3. Adhuc, Virtus cogitativa non habet ordinem ad intellectum possibile quo intelligit homo, nisi per suum actum quo præparantur phantasmata ut per intellectum agentem fiant intelligibilia actu et perficientia intellectum possibile. Operatio autem ista non semper eadem manet in nobis. Impossibile est igitur quod homo per eam vel continuetur principio speciei humanæ vel per eam habeat speciem. Sic igitur patet quod prædicta responsio omnino confutanda est. 4. Item, Id quo aliquid operatur aut agit est principium ad quod sequitur operatio, non solum quantum ad esse ipsius, sed etiam quantum ad multitudinem aut unitatem; ab eodem enim calore non est nisi unum calefacere sive una calefactio activa, quamvis possit esse multiplex calefieri sive multæ calefactiones passivæ secundum diversitatem calefactorum simul per unum calorem. Intellectus autem possibilis est quo intelligit anima, ut dicit Aristoteles, De anima, III, c. iv et v. Si igitur intellectus possibilis hujus et illius hominis sit unus et idem numero, necesse erit etiam intelligere utriusque esse unum et idem, quod patet esse impossibile; nam diversorum individuorum impossibile est esse operationem unam. Impossibile est igitur intellectum possibilem esse unum hujus et illius. Si autem dicatur quod ipsum intelligere multiplicatur secundum diversitatem phantasmatum, hoc stare non potest. 1. Sicut enim dictum est, unius agentis una est actio, quæ multiplicatur solum secundum diversa subjecta in quæ transit illa actio. Intelligere autem et velle et hujusmodi non sunt actiones transeuntes in exteriorem materiam, sed manent in ipso agente quasi perfectiones ipsius agentis, ut patet per Aristotelem, Metaphys. XII, c. vii. Non potest igitur unum intelligere intellectus possibilis multiplicari per diversitatem phantasmatum. 2. Præterea, Phantasmata se habent ad intellectum possibile ut activum quodàmodo ad passivum, secundum quod Aristoteles dicit, De anima, III, c. iii, et iv, quod intelligere quoddam pati est. Pati autem ipsum patientis diversificatur secundum diversas formas activorum sive species, non secundum diversitatem eorum in numero; in uno enim passivo sequitur simul a duobus activis, scilicet calefaciente et desiccante calefieri et desiccari; non autem a duobus calefacientibus sequitur in uno calefactibili duplex calefieri, sed unum tantum, nisi forte sint diversæ species caloris; quum enim calor duplex unius speciei non possit esse in uno subjecto, motus autem numeretur secundum terminum ad quem, si sit unius temporis et ejusdem subjecti, non poterit esse duplex calefieri in uno subjecto; et hoc dico, nisi sit alia species caloris, sicut ponitur in semine calor ignis, cœli et animæ. Ex diversitate igitur phantasmatum intelligere intellectus possibilis non multiplicatur, nisi secundum diversarum specierum intelligentiam, ut dicamus quod aliud est ejus intelligere, prout intelligit hominem et prout intelligit equum. Sed horum unum intelligere simul convenit omnibus hominibus. Ergo ad hoc sequetur quod idem intelligere numero sit hujus hominis et illius. 3. Adhuc, Intellectus possibilis intelligent hominem, non secundum quod est hic homo, sed in quantum est homo simpliciter secundum rationem speciei. Hæc autem ratio una est, quantumcumque phantasmatum hominis multiplicentur vel in uno homine vel in diversis secundum diversa individua hominis, quorum proprie sunt phantasmata. Multiplicatio igitur phantasmatum non potest esse causa quod multiplicetur ipsum intelligere intellectus possibilis respectu unius speciei; et sic adhuc remanebit una actio numero diversorum hominum. 4. Item, Proprium subjectum habitus scientiae est intellectus possibilis, quia ejus actus est considerare secundum scientiam. Accidens autem, si sit unum secundum speciem, non multiplicatur nisi secundum subjectum. Si igitur intellectus possibilis sit unus omnium hominum, necesse erit quod scientiae habitus, si sit idem secundum speciem, puta habitus grammaticæ, sit idem numero in omnibus hominibus; quod est inopinabile. Non est igitur intellectus possibilis unus in omnibus. Sed ad hoc dicunt quod subjectum habitus scientiæ non est intellectus possibilis, sed intellectus passivus et virtus cogitativa; quod quidem esse non potest. 1. Nam, sicut probat Aristoteles, Ethic., II, c. 1, ex similibus actibus fiunt similes habitus, qui similes etiam actus reddunt. Ex actibus autem intellectus possibilis fit habitus scientiæ in nobis, et ad eosdem actus potentes sumus secundum habitum scientiæ. Habitus igitur scientiæ est in intellectu possibili, non passivo. 2. Adhuc, Scientia est de conclusionibus demonstrationum; nam demonstratio est syllogismus faciens scire, ut Aristoteles dicit, Analytic. poster. I, c. 11. Conclusiones autem demonstrationum sunt universales, sicut et principia. Est igitur in illa virtute quæ est cognitiva universalium. Intellectus autem passivus non est cognoscitivus universalium, sed particularium intentionum. Non est igitur subjectum habitus scientiæ. 3. Præterea, Contra hoc sunt plures rationes adductæ supra (c. lix), quum de unione intellectus possibilis ad hominem ageretur. Videtur autem ex hoc fuisse deceptio, in ponendo habitum scientiæ in intellectu passivo esse, quia homines inveniuntur promptiores vel minus prompti ad scientiarum considerationes, secundum diversam dispositionem virtutis cogitativæ et imaginativæ. 1. Sed ista promptitudo dependet ab illis virtutibus sicut ex dipositionibus remotis, prout etiam dependet a bonitate tactus et corporis complexione, secundum quod dicit Aristoteles, De anima, II, c. 1x, homines boni tactus et mollis carnis esse bene aptos mente. Ex habitu autem scientiæ inest facultas considerandi, sicut ex proximo principio actus; oportet enim quod habitus scientiæ perficiat potentiam qua intelligimus, ut agat quum voluerit faciliter, sicut et alii habitus potentias in quibus sunt. 2. Item, Dispositiones prædictarum virtutum sunt ex parte objecti, scilicet phantasmatis, quod, propter bonitatem harum virtutum, præparatur ad hoc quod faciliter fiat intelligibile actu per intellectum agentem. Dispositiones autem quæ sunt ex parte objectorum non sunt habitus, sed quæ sunt ex parte potentialum; non enim dispositiones quibus terribilia fiunt magis toleranda, sunt habitus fortitudinis, sed dispositio qua pars animæ, scilicet irascibilis, disponitur ad terribilia sustinenda. Ergo manifestum est quod habitus scientiæ non est in intellectu passivo, ut Commentator prædictus dicit, sed magis in intellectu possibili. 1. Item, Si unus est intellectus possibilis omnium hominum, oportet ponere intellectum possibile semper fuisse, si homines semper fuerunt, sicut ponunt; et multo magis intellectum agentem, quia agens est honorabilius patiente, ut Aristoteles dicit De anima, III, c. v. Sed si agens est æternum et recipiens æternum, oportet recepta esse æterna. Ergo species intelligibiles ab æterno fuerunt in intellectu possibili; non igitur de novo erit quod recipiat aliqua species intelligibiles. Ad nihil autem sensus et phantasia sunt necessaria ad intelligendum, nisi ut ab eis accipiantur species intelligibiles. Sensus igitur non erit necessarius ad intelligendum, neque phantasia, et redibit opinio Platonis quod scientiam non acquirimus per sensus, sed ab eis excitamur ad rememorandum prius scita. Sed ad hoc respondet prædictus Commentator quod species intelligibiles habent duplex subjectum: ex uno quorum habent æternitatem, scilicet ab intellectu possibili; ab alio autem habent novitatem, scilicet a phantasmate; sicut etiam speciei visibilis subjectum est duplex, scilicet res extra animam et potentia visiva. Hæc autem responsio stare non potest. 1. Impossibile enim est quod actio et perfectio æterni dependeat ab aliquo temporali. Phantasmata autem temporalia sunt et de novo quotidie in nobis facta ex sensu. Impossibile est igitur quod species intelligibiles, quibus intellectus possibilis fit actu et operatur, dependeant a phantasmatibus, sicut species visibles dependent a rebus quæ sunt extra animam. 2. Amplius, Nihil recipit quod jam ha- A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J omittunt: « Sicut et principia. Est igitur in illa virtute quæ est cognitiva universalium. » bet, quia, recipiens oportet esse denudatum a recepto, secundum Aristotelem, De anima, III, c. 11. Sed species intelligibiles, ante meum sentire vel tuum, fuerunt in intellectu possibili; non enim qui fuerunt ante nos intellexissent, nisi intellectus possibilis fuisset reductus in actum per species intelligibiles. — Nec potest dici quod species illæ, prius receptæ in intellectu possibili, esse cessaverunt; quia intellectus possibilis non solum recipit, sed conservat quæ recipit; unde, in tertio De anima, c. 1v, dicitur esse locus specierum. Igitur ex phantasmatibus nostris non recipiuntur species in intellectu possibili. — Frustra igitur per intellectum agentem fiunt intelligibilia actu nostra phantasmata. 3. Item, Receptum est in recipiente per modum recipientis. Sed intellectus secundum se est supra motum. Ergo quod recipitur in eo recipitur fixe et immobiliter. 4. Præterea, Quum intellectus sit superior virtus quam sensus, oportet quod sit magis unita; et ex hoc videmus quod unus intellectus habet judicium de diversis generibus sensibilium quæ ad diversas potentias sensitivas pertinent; unde accipere possumus quod operationes pertinentes ad diversas potentias sensitivas in uno intellectu adunantur. Potentiarum autem sensitivarum quædam recipiunt tantum, ut sensus; quædam autem retinent, ut imaginatio et memoria; unde et thesauri dicuntur. Oportet igitur quod intellectus possibilis et recipiat et retineat jam recepta. 5. Amplius, In rebus naturalibus vanum est dicere quod id ad quod pervenitur per motum non permaneat, sed statim esse desinat; propter quod repudiatur positio dicentium omnia semper moveri; oportet enim motum ad quietem terminari. Multo igitur minus dici potest quod receptum in intellectu possibili non oonservetur. 6. Adhuc, Si, ex phantasmatibus quæ sunt in nobis, intellectus possibilis non recipit aliquas species intelligibiles, quia jam recepit a phantasmatibus eorum qui fuerunt ante nos, pari ratione anullorum phantasmatibus recipit, quos alii præceserunt. Sed quoslibet aliqui alii præceserunt, si mundus æternus est, ut ponunt. Nunquam igitur intellectus possibilis recipit aliquas species a phantasmatibus; frustra igitur ponitur intellectus ab Aristotele, De anima, III, c. 1v, ut faciat phantasmata esse intelligibilia actu. 7. Præterea, Ex hoc videtur sequi quod intellectus possibilis non indigeat phantasmatibus ad intelligendum. Non autem per intellectum possibile intelligimus. Neque igitur nos sensu et phantasmate indigebimus ad intelligendum; quod est manifeste falsum et contra sententiam Aristotelis, De anima, III, c. v11 et v11. Si autem dicatur quod pari ratione non indigeremus phantasmate ad considerandum ea quorum species intelligibiles sunt in intellectu conservatæ, etiamsi intellectus possibiles sint plures in diversis, quod est contra Aristotelem, qui dicit, De anima, III, c. v11, quod « nequa « quam sine phantasmate. intelligit ani « ma, » patet quod non est conveniens obviatio. 4. Intellectus enim possibilis, sicut et quælibet substantia, operatur secundum modum suæ naturæ. Secundum autem naturam suam est forma corporis; unde intelligit quidem immaterialia, sed inspicit ea in aliquo materiali; cujus signum est quod, in doctrinis universalibus, exempla particularia ponuntur, in quibus quod dicitur inspiciatur. Alio ergo modo se habet intellectus possibilis ad phantasma quo indiget, ante speciem intelligibilem, et alio modo postquam recepit speciem intelligibilem: ante enim indiget eo ut ab eo accipiat speciem intelligibilem; unde se habet ad intellectum possibilem ut objectum movens; sed, post speciem in eo receptam, indiget eo quasi instrumento sive fundamento suæ speciei; unde se habet ad phantasmata sicut causa efficiens; secundum enim imperium intellectus, formatur in imaginatione phantasma conveniens tali speciei intelligibili, in quo resplendet species intelligibilis sicut exemplar in exemplato sive in imagine. Si ergo intellectus possibilis semper habuisset species, nunquam compararetur ad phantasmata sicut recipiens ad objectum motivum. 2. Item, Intellectus possibilis est quo anima ethomo intelligit, secundum Arisut D et I; sed aliquis delevit in codice: « Recitotelem, De anima, III, c. vi. Si autem intellectus possibilis est unus omnium ac aeternus, oportet quod in ipsojam sint receptæ omnes species intelligibiles eorum quæ a quibuslibet hominibus sunt scita vel fuerunt. Quilibet igitur nostrum qui per intellectum possibile intelligit, imo cujus intelligere est ipsum intelligere intellectus possibilis, intelliget omnia quæ sunt vel fuerunt a quibuscumque intellecta, quod patet esset falsum. Ad hoc autem Commentator prædictus respondet, dicens quod nos non intelligimus per intellectum possibile, nisi secundum quod continuatur nobis per nostra phantasmata; et, quia non sunt eadem phantasmata apud omnes nec eodem modo disposita, nec quidquid intelligit unus intelligit aliud. Et videtur hæc responsio consonare præmissis; nam, etiamsi intellectus possibilis non est unus, non intelligimus ea quorum species sunt in intellectu possibili, nisi adsint phantasmata ad hoc disposita. Sed quod dicta responsio non possit totaliter inconveniens evitare, sic patet. Quum intellectus possibilis factus est actu per speciem intelligibilem receptam, potest agere per seipsum; ut dicit Aristoteles, De anima, III, c. Ⅲ; unde videmus quod illud cujus scientiam semel accepimus est in potestate nostra iterum considerare quum volumus, nec impedimur propter phantasmata; quia in potestate nostra est formare phantasmata accommodata considerationi quam volumus, nisi forte esset impedimentum ex parte organi cujus est; sicut accidit in phreneticis et lethargicis, qui non possunt habere liberum actum phantasiæ et memorativæ. Et propter hoc Aristoteles dicit, Physic. VIII, c. Ⅳ, quod ille qui jam habet habitum scientiæ, licet sit potentia considerans, non indiget motore qui reducat eum de potentia in actum, nisi removente prohibens, sed potestipse exire in actum considerationis, ut vult. Si autem in intellectu possibili sunt species intelligibiles omnium scientiarum (quod oportet dicere, si est unus et aeternus), necessitas phantasmatum ad intellectum possibile erit sicut est illius qui jam habet scientiam ad considerandum secundum scientiam illam, quod etiam sine phantasmatibus non posset. Quum igitur quilibet homo intelligat per intellectum possibile, secundum quod est reductus in actum per species intelligibiles, quilibet homo poterit considerare, quum voluerit scita omnium scientiarum; quod est manifeste falsum; sic enim nullus indigeret doctore ad acquirendum scientiam. Non igitur est unus et aeternus intellectus possibilis.
Caput 74
[lib.2.cap.74.n.1] CHAPTER LXXIV—Of the Opinion of Avicenna, who supposed Intellectual Forms not to be preserved in the Potential Intellect
THE above arguments (against Averroes) seem to be obviated by the theory of Avicenna. He says that intellectual impressions do not remain in the potential intellect except just so long as they are being actually understood. And this he endeavours to prove from the fact that forms are actually apprehended so long as they remain in the faculty that apprehends them: thus in the act of perception both sense and intellect become identified with their objects: hence it seems that whenever sense or intellect is united with its object, as having taken its form, actual apprehension, sensible or intellectual, occurs. But the faculties which preserve forms which not actually apprehended, he says, are not the faculties that apprehend those forms, but storehouses (thesauros) attached to the said apprehensive faculties. Thus phantasy is the storehouse of forms apprehended by sense; and memory, according to him, is the storehouse of notions apprehended independently of sensation, as when the sheep apprehends the hostility of the wolf. The capacity of these faculties for storing up forms not actually apprehended comes from their having certain bodily organs in which the forms are received, such reception following close upon the (first) apprehension; and
thereby the apprehensive faculty, turning to these storehouses, apprehends in act. But it is acknowledged that the potential intellect is an apprehensive faculty, and has no bodily organ: hence Avicenna concludes that it is impossible for intellectual impressions to be preserved in the potential intellect except so long as it is actually understanding. Therefore, one of three things: either (1) these intellectual impressions must be preserved in some bodily organ, or faculty having a bodily organ: or (2) they must be self-existent intelligible forms, to which our potential intellect stands in the relation of a mirror to the objects mirrored: or (3) whenever the potential intellect understands, these intellectual impressions must flow into it afresh from some separate agent. The first of these three suppositions is impossible: because forms existing in faculties that use bodily organs are only potentially intelligible. The second supposition is the opinion of Plato, which Aristotle rejects. Hence Avicenna concludes that, whenever we actually understand, there flow into our potential intellect intellectual impressions from the active intellect, which he assumes to be an intelligence subsisting apart. If any one objects against him that then there is no difference between a man when he first learns, and when he wishes to review and study again something which he has learnt before, he replies that to learn and con over again what we know is nothing else than to acquire a perfect habit of uniting ourselves with the (extrinsic) active intelligence, so as to receive therefrom the intellectual form; and therefore, before we come to reflect on and use our knowledge, there is in man a bare potentiality of such reception, but reflection on our knowledge is like potentiality reduced to act. And this view seems consonant with what Aristotle teaches, that memory is not in the intellectual but in the sensitive part of the soul. So it seems that the preservation of intellectual impressions does not belong to the intellectual part of the soul. But on
careful consideration this theory will be found ultimately to differ little or nothing from the theory of Plato. Plato supposed forms of intellect to be separately existing substances, whence knowledge flowed in upon our souls: Avicenna supposes one separate substance, the active intellect, to be the source when knowledge flows in upon our souls. Now it makes no matter for the acquirement of knowledge whether our knowledge is caused by one separate substance or by several. Either way it will follow that our knowledge is not caused by sensible things: the contrary of which conclusion appears from the fact that any one wanting in any one sense is wanting in acquaintance with the sensible objects of which that sense takes cognisance.
1. It is a novelty to say that the potential intellect, viewing the impressions made by singular things in the phantasy, is lit up by the light of the active intellect to know the universal; and that the action of the lower faculties, phantasy, memory, and cogitative faculty, fit and prepare the soul to receive the emanation of the active intellect. This, I say, is novel and strange doctrine: for we see that our soul is better disposed to receive impressions from intelligences subsisting apart, the further it is removed from bodily and sensible things: the higher is attained by receding from the lower. It is not therefore likely that any regarding of bodily phantasms should dispose our soul to receive the influence of an intelligence subsisting apart. Plato made a better study of the basis of his position: for he supposed that sensible appearances do not dispose the soul to receive the influence of separately subsisting forms, but merely rouse the intellect to consider knowledge that has been already caused in it by an external principle: for he supposed that from the beginning knowledge of all things intellectually knowable was caused in our souls by separately existing forms, or ideas: hence learning, he said, was nothing else than recollecting.
3. Intellectual knowledge is more perfect than sensory. If therefore in sensory knowledge there is some power of preserving apprehensions, much more will this be the case in intellectual knowledge.
6. This opinion is contrary to the mind of Aristotle, who says that the potential intellect is “the place of ideas”: which is tantamount to saying that it is a “storehouse” of intellectual impressions, to use Avicenna’s own phrase.
The arguments to the contrary are easily solved. For the potential intellect is perfectly actuated about intellectual impressions when it is actually considering them: when it is not actually considering them, it is not perfectly actuated about them, but is in a condition intermediate between potentiality and actuality. As for memory, that is located in the sentient part of the soul, because the objects of memory fall under a definite time for there is no memory but of the past; and therefore, since there is no abstraction of its object from individualising conditions, memory does not belong to the intellectual side of our nature, which deals with universals This however does not bar the potential intellect’s preservation of intellectual impressions, which are abstracted from all particular conditions.
[lib.2.cap.74.n.1] De opinione Avicennæ qui posuit formas intelligibiles non conservari in intellectu possibili. (I, q. Lxxix, a. vi.) Prædictis autem rationibus obviare videntur quæ Avicenna ponit. Dicit enim, De anima, c. vi, quod in intellectu possibili non remanent species intelligibiles, nisi quamdiu actu intelliguntur. Quod quidem ex hoc probare nititur quia, quamdiu formæ apprehensæ manent in potentia apprehensiva, actu apprehenduntur; ex hoc enim sensus fit sensus in actu quod est idem cum sensato in actu, et similiter intellectus in actu est idem cum intellecto in actu; unde videtur quod, quandocumque sensus vel intellectus est factus unum cum sensato vel intellecto, secundum hoc quod habet formam ipsius, fit apprehensio in actu per sensum vel per intellectum. Vires autem quæ conservant formas non apprehensas in actu dicit non esse vires apprehensivas, sed thesauros virtutum apprehensvarum; sicut imaginatio, quæ est thesaurus formarum apprehensarum per sensum, et memoria, secundum ipsum, quæ est thesaurus intentionum apprehensarum absque sensu; sicut quum ovis apprehendit inimicitiam lupi. Hoc autem contingit hujusmodi virtutibus quod conservant formas non apprehensas actu, in quantum habent quædam organa corporea in quibus recipiuntur formæ receptione propinqua apprehensioni; et propter hoc virtus apprehensiva, convertens se ad hujusmodi thesauros, apprehendit in actu. Constat autem quod intellectus possibilis est virtus apprehensiva, et quod non habet organum corporeum; unde concludit quod imposibile est quod species intelligibiles conserventur in intellectu possibili, nisi quamdiu intelligit actu. Oportet ergo quod vel ipsæ species intelligibles conserventur in aliquo organo corporeo sive in aliqua virtute habente organum corporeum; vel oportet quod formæ intelligibles sint per se exsistentes, ad quas comparetur intellectus possibilis noter sicut speculum ad res quæ videntur in speculo; vel oportet quod species intelligibles fluant in intellectum possibile de novo ab aliquo agente separato, quandocumque actu intelligit. Primum autem horum trium est imposibile, quia formæ exsistentes in potentiis utentibus organis corporalibus sunt intelligibles in potentia tantum. Secundum autem est opinio Platonis, quam reprobat Aristoteles, Metaphys. I, c. vi. Unde concludit tertium, quod quandocumque intelligimus actu, fluunt species intelligibles in intellectum possibile nostrum ab intellectu agente quem ponit ipse quamdam substantiam separatam. Si vero aliquis objiciat contra eum quod tunc non est differentia inter hominem, quum primo addiscit et quum postmodum vult considerare in actu quæ prius didicit, respondet quod addiscere nihil aliud est quam acquirere perfectam habitudinem conjungendi se intelligentiæ agenti, ad recipiendum ab ea formam intelligibilem; et ideo, ante addiscere est nuda potentia in homine ad talem receptionem, addiscere vero est sicut potentia adaptata. Videtur etiam huic opinioni consonare quod Aristoteles, De memoria, c. i, ostendit, memoriam non esse in parte intellectiva, sed in parte animæ sensitiva; ex quo videtur quod conservatio specierum intelligibilium non pertineat ad partem intellectivam. Sed si diligenter consideretur, hæc positio, quantum ad originem, parum aut nihil differt a position Platonis.
Caput 75
[lib.2.cap.75.n.1] CHAPTER LXXV—Confutation of the Arguments which seem to prove the Unity of the Potential Intellect
. Apparently, every form that is specifically one and numerically multiplied, is individualised by its matter: for things specifically one and numerically many agree in form, and are distinguished according to matter. If then the potential intellect is multiplied according to number in different men, while it remains one in species, it must be multiplied in this and that man by matter, — by the matter which is that man’s body the form of which it is supposed to be. But every form, individualised by matter which it actuates, is a material form: for the being of everything must depend on that on which its individuation depends: for as general constituents are of the essence of the species, so individualising constituents are of the essence of this individual. It follows therefore that the potential intellect is a material form, and consequently that it does not receive any thing, nor do anything, except through a bodily organ: which is contrary to the nature of the potential intellect.
Reply. We confess that the potential intellect is specifically one in different men, and many according to number, — waiving the point that the constituents of man are not put into genus and species for what they are in themselves, but for what they are as constituents of the whole. Still it does not follow that the potential intellect is a material form, dependent for its being on the body. For as it is specifically proper to the human soul to be united to a certain species of body, so any individual soul differs from any other individual soul, in number only, inasmuch as it is referable to numerically another body. Thus then human souls, — and consequently the potential intellect, which is a faculty of the human soul, — are individualised according to bodies, not that the individuation is caused by the bodies.
Arg. 2. If the potential intellect were different in this man and that, the impression understood would have to be numerically different in this man, while remaining one in species: for since the proper subject of impressions actually understood is the potential intellect, when that intellect is multiplied there must be a corresponding multiplication of intellectual impressions according to the number of different individuals. But the only impressions or forms which are the same in species and different in number, are individual forms, which cannot be intellectual forms, because objects of intellect are universal, not particular. It is impossible therefore for the potential intellect to be multiplied in different individual men.
This second argument fails from neglecting to distinguish between that whereby (quo) we understand, and that which (quod) we understand. The impression received in the potential intellect is not to be taken for that which is understood. For as all arts and sciences have for their object-matter things which are understood, it would follow that the subject-matter of all sciences was impressions on the potential intellect: which is manifestly false, for no science has anything to say to such mental impressions except psychology and metaphysics: though it is true that through those mental impressions there is known the whole content of all the sciences. Therefore, in the process of understanding, the intellectual impression received in the potential intellect is that whereby we understand, as the impression of colour in the eye is not that which is seen, but that whereby we see. On the other hand, that which is understood is the nature (ratio) of things existing outside the soul, as also it is things existing outside the soul that are seen with the bodily sight: for to this end were arts and sciences invented, that things might be known in their natures (naturis).
Still it does not follow that, if sciences are of universal truths, universals should subsist by themselves outside the soul, as Plato supposed. For though for the truth of knowledge it is necessary that the knowledge should answer to the thing, still it is not necessary that the mode of the knowledge and the mode of the thing should be the same: for properties that are united in the thing are sometimes known separately. Thus one and the same thing is white and sweet: still sight takes cognisance only of the whiteness, and taste only of the sweetness. Thus again intellect understands a line drawn in sensible matter apart from that sensible matter, though it might understand it also along with the sensible matter. This difference arises according to the diversity of intellectual impressions received in the intellect, which some times are the likeness of quantity only, sometimes of a sensible quantitative substance. In like manner also, though the nature of genus and species never exists except in concrete individuals, still the intellect understands the nature of genus and species without understanding the individualising elements; and this is the meaning of understanding universals. And so these two positions are reconciled, that universals have no subsistence outside the soul; and yet that the intellect, understanding universals, understands things which are outside the soul.
The fact of the intellect understanding the nature of genus and species
stripped of its individualising elements, arises from the condition of the intellectual impression received in understanding, which impression is rendered immaterial by the active intellect, inasmuch as it is abstracted from matter and materialising conditions whereby a thing is individualised. And therefore the sentient faculties can take no cognisance of universals, since they cannot receive an immaterial form, seeing that they receive always in a bodily organ.
It is not therefore necessary that the intellectual impression of this and that intelligence should be numerically one: for it would follow thereupon that the act of understanding in them both was also numerically one, since activity follows form, which is the principle of species: but it is necessary, to the end that one object should be understood by both minds, that there should be a like impression of one and the same object in them both. And this is possible enough, although the intellectual impressions differ in number: for there is no difficulty in having different images of one thing; hence the contingency of one than being seen by several persons. There is nothing inconsistent then with the universalising knowledge of the understanding in their being different intellectual impressions in different minds. Nor need it ensue, because these intellectual impressions are many in number and the same in species, that they are not actual but only potential terms of understanding, as is the case with other individual things. Mere individuality is not inconsistent with intelligibility: for we must admit the potential and active intellects themselves, if we may suppose the two to subsist apart, united to no body, but subsistent by themselves, to be individual beings and still intelligible. What is inconsistent with intelligibility is materiality: as is shown by this consideration, that for the forms of material things to become actually intelligible, abstraction has to be made from the particular matter in which they are lodged; and therefore in cases in which individuation is due to particular matter involving particular dimensions, the things so individualised are not actually intelligible. But where individuation is not due to matter, such individual things may without difficulty be actually intelligible. Now intellectual impressions, like all other forms, are individualised by their subject, which is the potential intellect; and since the potential intellect is not material, it does not stand in the way of the actual intelligibility of the impressions individualised by it.
But though we have said that the intellectual impression, received in the
potential intellect, is not that which is understood, but that whereby we understand, still it remains true that by reflection the intellect understands itself and its own intellectual act and the impression whereby it understands. Its own intellectual act it understands in two ways, — in one way, in particular, for it understands that it is now understanding; in another way, in general, inasmuch as it reasons about the said act. And likewise it understands intellect and the impression in intellect in two ways, — by remarking that itself is and has an intellectual impression, which is particular knowledge; and by studying its own nature and the nature of the intellectual impression, which is knowledge of the universal. According to this latter way we treat of intellect and of the intelligible in science.
Arg. 3. The master transfuses the knowledge which he has into the scholar. Either then the knowledge transfused is the same in number, or different in number, though the same in species. The latter alternative seems impossible: because it supposes the master to cause his own knowledge in the scholar in the same way that an agent causes its own form in another being, by generating a nature specifically like its own; which seems proper to material agents. It must be then that numerically the same knowledge is caused in the scholar that was in the master; which would be impossible, were there not one potential intellect of them both.
Reply. The saying that the knowledge in master and scholar is numerically one, is partly true and partly not: it is numerically one in point of the thing known, but not in point of the intellectual impressions whereby the thing is known, nor in point of the habit of knowledge itself. It is to be observed however that, as Aristotle (Metaph. VII, ix) teaches, there are arts in whose subject matter there is not any principle active in producing the effect of the art, as is clear in the building art: for in wood and stones there is no active power moving to the erection of a house, but only a passive aptitude. But there is an art in whose subject matter there is an active principle moving in the direction of the effect of the art, as is clear in the healing art: for in the sick subject there is an active principle tending to health. And therefore the effect of the former kind of art is never produced by nature, but always by art, as every house is a work of art: but the effect of the latter kind is produced as well by art as by nature without art: for many are healed by the operation of nature without the art of medicine. In these things that can be done both by art and nature, art imitates nature: thus if one is sick of a chill, nature heals him by warming him: hence the physician also, if he is to cure him, heals him by warming. Similar is the case with the art of teaching: for in the pupil there is an active principle making for knowledge, namely, the understanding, and those primary axioms which are naturally understood; and therefore knowledge is acquired in two ways, — without teaching, by a man’s own finding out, and again by teaching. The teacher therefore begins to teach in the same way that the discoverer begins to find out, by offering for the consideration of the scholar elements of knowledge already possessed by him: because all education and all knowledge starts from pre-existing knowledge, drawing conclusions from elements already in the mind, and proposing sensible examples whereby there may be formed in the scholar’s soul those impressions of phantasy which are necessary or intelligence. And because the working of the teacher from without would
effect nothing, unless borne out by an internal principle of knowledge, which is within us by the gift of God, so it is said among theologians that man teaches by rendering the service of ministry, but God by working within: so too the physician is called nature’s minister in healing.
A final remark. Since the Commentator makes the passive intellect the residence of habits of knowledge (Chap. ), the unity of the potential intellect helps not at all to the numerical unity of knowledge in master and scholar: for certainly the passive intellect is not the same in different men, since it is an organic faculty. Hence, on his own showing, this argument does not serve his purpose.
[lib.2.cap.75.n.1] Solutio rationum quibus videtur probari unitas intellectus possibilis. (I, q. LXXV, a. iii.) Ad probandum autem unitatem intellectus possibilis quædam rationes adducuntur, quas oportet ostendere efficaces non esse. 4. Videtur enim quod omnis forma quæ est una secundum speciem et multiplicatur secundum numerum, individuetur per materiam; quæ enim sunt unum specie et multa secundum numerum, conveniunt in forma et distinguuntur secundum materiam. Si igitur intellectus possibilis in diversis hominibus sit multiplicatus secundum numerum, quum sit unus secundum speciem, oportet quod sit individatus in hoc et in illo per materiam; non autem per materiam quæ sit pars sui, quia sic esset receptio ejus de genere receptionis materiae primæ et reciperet formas individuales; quod est contra naturam intellectus. Relinquitur ergo quod individuetur per materiam quæ est corpus hominis cujus ponitur forma. Omnis autem forma individuata per materiam cujus est actus, est forma materialis; oportet enim quod esse cujuslibet rei dependat ab eo a quo dependet individuatio ejus; sicut enim principia communia sunt de essentia speciei, ita principia individuia sunt de essentia hujus individui. Sequitur ergo quod intellectus possibilis sit forma materialis, et per consequens quod non recipiat aliquid neque operetur A, B, C, D, E, F, omittunt: « Et. » sine organo corporali; quod est etiam contra naturam intellectus possibilis. Igitur intellectus possibilis non multiplicatur in diversis hominibus, sed est unus omnium $^4$ hominum. 2. Item, Si intellectus possibilis esset alius in hoc et in illo homine, oporteret quod species intellecta esset alia numero in hoc et in illo, una vero in specie; quum enim specierum intellectarum in actu proprium subjectum sit intellectus possibilis, oportet quod, multiplicato intellectu possibili, multiplicentur species intelligibilies secundum numerum in diversis. Species autem aut formæ quæ sunt eædem secundum speciem et diversæ secundum numerum, sunt formæ individuales, quæ non possunt esse formæ intelligibilies; quia intelligibilia sunt universalia, non particularia. Impossibile est igitur intellectum possibilem esse multiplicatum in diversis individuis hominum; necesse est igitur quod sit unus in omnibus. 3. Adhuc, Magister scientiam quam habet transfundit in discipulum; aut igitur eamdem numero, aut aliam diversam numero, etsi sit eadem in specie. Secundum videtur impossibile esse, quia sic magister causaret scientiam suam in discipulo sicut causat formam suam in aliquo, generando sibi simile in specie; quod videtur pertinere ad agentia materialia. Oportet ergo quod eamdem scientiam numero causet in discipulo; quod esse non posset, nisi esset unus intellectus possibilis utriusque. Necesse $^2$ igitur videtur intellectum possibilem esse unum omnium hominum. Sicut autem prædicta positio veritatem non habet, ut ostensum est (c. LXXIII), ita rationes positæ ad ipsam confirmandam facile solubiles sunt. 4. Confitemur enim intellectum possibilem esse unum specie in diversis hominibus, plures autem secundum numerum; ut tamen non fiat in hoc vis quod partes hominis non ponuntur in genere vel specie secundum se, sed solum ut sunt principia totius. Nec tamen sequi-tur quod sit forma materialis secundum esse dependens a corpore; sicut enim animæ humanæ secundum suam speciem competit quod tali corpori secundum speciem uniatur, ita hæc anima differt ab illa numero solo, ex hoc quod ad aliud numero corpus habitudinem habet; et sic individuantur animæ humanæ $^3$, et per consequens intellectus possibilis qui est potentia animæ humanæ, secundum corpora, non quasi individuatione a corporibus causata. Secunda vero ratio ipsius deficit ex hoc quod non distinguit inter id quo intellectitur $^4$ et id quod intellectitur. Species $^5$ enim recepta in intellectu possibili non habet se ut quod intellectitur; quum enim de his quæ intelliguntur sint omnes artes et scientiæ, sequeretur quod omnes scientiæ essent de speciebus exsistentibus in intellectu possibili; quod patet esse falsum; nulla enim scientia de eis aliquid considerat, nisi naturalis et metaphysica; sed tamen per eas quæcumque sunt in omnibus scientiis cognoscuntur. Habet se igitur species intelligibilis recepta in intellectu possibili $^6$, in intelligendo, sicut id quo intellectitur; sicut et species coloris in oculo non est id quod videtur, sed id quo videmus. Id vero quod intellectitur est ipsa ratio rerum exsistentium extra animam; sicut etiam et res extra animam exsistentes visu corporali videntur; ad hoc enim inventæ sunt artes et scientiæ ut res in suis naturis cognoscuntur. Neque tamen oportet quod, si scientiæ sunt de universalibus, universalia sint extra animam per se subsistentia, sicut Plato posuit. Quamvis enim ad veritatem cognitionis necesse sit ut cognitio rei respondeat, non tamen oportet quod idem sit modus cognitionis et rei; quæ enim conjucta sunt in re, interdum divisim cognoscuntur; simul enim una res est et alba et dulcis; visus tamen cognoscit solam albedinem, gustus solam dulcedinem. Sic etiam et intellectus intelligit lineam in materia sensibili ex- $^1$ A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J omittunt: « Hominum. » $^2$ B, D, omittunt: « Necesse igitur videtur intellectum possibilem esse unum omnium hominum. » $^3$ A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J,: « Humanæ, et per consequens intellectus possibilis qui est potentia animæ humanæ. » $^4$ — $^5$ A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, omittunt: « Species enim recepta in intellectu possibili non habet se ut quod intellectitur. » $^6$ — C, G, ad marginem: « (Sicut id quo intellectitur) non sicut d quod intellectitur. » sistentem absque materia sensibili, licet etiam cum materia sensibili intelligere posset; hæc autem diversitas accidit secundum diversitatem specierum intelligibilium in intellectu receptarum, quæ quandoque sunt similitudo quantitatis tantum, quandoque vero substantiæ sensibilis quantæ; similiter autem, licet natura generis et speciei nunquam sit nisi in his individuis, intelligit tamen intellectus naturam speciei et generis, non intelligendo principia individuantia; et hoc est intelligere universalia. Et sic hæc duo non repugnant, quod universalia non subsistant extra animam, et quod intellectus, intelligens universalia, intelligat res quæ sunt extra animam. Quod autem intelligat intellectus naturam generis vel speciei denudatam a principiis individuantibus, contingit ex conditione speciei intelligibilis in ipso receptæ, quæ est immaterialis effecta per intellectum agentem, utpote abstracta a materia et conditionibus materiæ quibus aliquid individuatur. Et ideo potentiæ sensitivæ non possunt cognoscere universalia, quia non possunt recipere formam immaterialem, quum recipiant semper in organo corporali. Non igitur oportet esse numero unam speciem intelligibilem hujus intelligentis et illius; ad hoc enim sequeretur esse unum intelligere numero hujus et illius, quum operatio sequatur formam, quæ est principium operationis; sed oportet, ad hoc quod sit unum intellectum, quod sit unius et ejusdem similitudo; et hoc est possibile, si species intelligibles sunt numero diversæ; nihil enim prohibet unius rei fieri plures imagines differentes; et ex hoc contingit quod unus homo a pluribus videtur. Non igitur repugnat cognitioni universali intellectus quod sint diversæ species intelligibles in diversis. Nec propter hoc oportet quod, si species intelligibles sint plures numero et eædem specie, non sint intelligibles actu, sed potentia tantum, sicut alia individua. Non enim hoc quod est esse individuum repugnat ei quod est esse intelligibile actu; oportet enim dicere ipsum intellectnm possibile et agentem, si ponantur quædam substantiæ separatæ, corpori non unitæ, per se subsistentes, quædam individuua esse, et tamen intelligibilia sunt. Sed id quod repugnat intelligibilitati est materialitas; cujus signum est quod, ad hoc quod fiant formæ rerum materialium intelligibilium actu, oportet quod a materia abstrahantur; et ideo in illis in quibus individatio fit per hanc materiam signatam, individuata non sunt intelligibilia actu. Si autem individuatio fiat non per materiam, nihil prohibet ea quæ sunt individua esse actu intelligibilia; species autem intelligibilies individuantur per suum subjectum quod est intellectus possibilis, sicut et omnes aliæ formæ; unde, quum intellectus possibilis non sit materialis, non tollitur a speciebus individuatis per ipsum quin sint intelligibilies actu. 2. Præterea, In rebus sensibilibus, sicut non sunt intelligibilia actu individua quæ sunt multa in una specie, ut equi vel homines, ita nec individua quæ sunt unica in sua specie, ut hic sol et hæc luna. Eodem autem modo individuantur species per intellectum possibile, sive sint plures intellectus possibiles sive unus; sed non eodem modo multiplicantur in eadem specie. Nihil igitur refert, quantum ad hoc quod species receptæ in intellectu possibili sint intelligibilies actu, utrum intellectus possibilis sit unus in omnibus aut plures. 3. Item, Intellectus possibilis, secundum Commentatorem prædictum, est ultimus in ordine intelligibilium substantiarum; quæ quidem, secundum ipsum, sunt plures. Nec potest dici quin aliquæ superiorum substantiarum habeant cognitionem eorum quæ intellectus possibilis cognoscit. In motoribus enim orbium, ut ipse etiam dicit, sunt formæ eorum quæ causantur per orbis motum. Adhuc igitur remanebit, licet intellectus possibilis sit unus, quod formæ intelligibilies multiplicentur in diversis intellectibus. Licet autem dixerimus quod species intelligibilis in intellectu possibili recepta non sit quod intelligitur, sed quo intelligitur, non tamen removetur quin, per reflexionem quamdam, intellectus seipsum intelligat et suum intelligere et speciem qua intelligit. Suum autem intelligere intelligit dupliciter: Uno modo, in particulari; intelligit enim se nunc intelligere; alio modo, in universali, secundum quod ratiocinatur de ipsius actus natura. Unde et intellectum et speciem intelligibilem intelligit eodem modo dupliciter: et percipiendo se esse et habere speciem intelligibilem, quod est cognoscere in particulari; et considerando suam et speciei intelligibilis naturam, quod est cognoscere in universali; et secundum hoc de intellectu et intelligibili tractatur in scientiis. Per hæc autem quæ dicta sunt et tertiæ rationis apparet solutio. Quod enim dicit scientiam in discipulo et in magistro esse numero unam, partim quidem vere dicitur, partim autem non; est enim numero una quantum ad id quod scitur, non tamen quantum ad species intelligibiles quibus scitur neque quantum ad ipsum scientiæ habitum. Non tamen oportet quod eodem modo magister causet scientiam in discipulo sicut ignis generat ignem; non enim idem est modus eorum quæ a natura generantur et eorum quæ ab arte. Ignis quidem generat ignem naturaliter reducendo materiam de potentia in actum suæ formæ; magister vero causat scientiam in discipulo per modum artis; ad hoc enim datur ars demonstrativa, quam Aristoteles, Analytic. poster, I, c. 11, tradit; demonstratio enim est syllogismus faciens scire. Sciendum tamen quod, secundum quod Aristoteles, Metaphys. VII, c. 1x, docet, artium quædam sunt in quarum materia non est aliquod principium agens ad effectum artis producendum, sicut patet in aedificativa; non enim est in lignis et lapidibus aliqua vis activa movens ad domus constitutionem, sed aptitudo passiva tantum. Aliqua vero est ars in cujus materia est aliquod activum principium movens ad producendum effectum artis, sicut patet in medicativa; nam in corpore infirmo est aliquod activum principium ad sanitatem. Et ideo effectum artis primi generis nunquam producit natura; sed semper fit ab arte, sicut domus omnis est ab arte. Effectus autem secundi generis fit et ab arte et a natura sine arte; multi enim, per operationem naturæ, sine arte medicinæ sanantur. In his autem quæ possunt fieri et arte et natura, ars imitatur naturam; si quis enim ex frigida causa infirmetur, natura eum calefaciendo sanat; unde et medicus, si eum curare debeat, calefaciendo sanat. Huic autem arti simi lis est ars docendi; in eo enim qui docetur est principium activum ad scientiam, scilicet intellectus, et ea quæ naturaliter intelliguntur, scilicet prima principia; et ideo scientia acquiritur dupliciter: et sine doctrina per inventionem, et per doctrinam. Docens igitur hoc modo incipit docere sicut inveniens incipit invenire, offerendo scilicet considerationi discipuli principia ab eo nota; quia omnis disciplina et omnis scientia ex præexsistenti fit cognitione, et illa principia in conclusiones deducendo, et proponendo exempla sensibilia ex quibus in anima discipuli formentur phantasmata necessaria ad intelligendum. Et quia exterior operatio docentis nihil operaretur nisi adesset principium intrinsecum scientiæ, quod inest nobis divinitus, ideo apud theologos dicitur quod homo docet ministerium exhibendo, Deus autem interius operando; sicut et medicus dicitur naturæ minister in sa-nando. Sic igitur causatur scientia in discipulo per magistrum, non modo naturalis actionis, sed artificialis, ut dictum est. 4. Præterea, Quum Commentator prædictus ponat habitus scientiarum esse in intellectu passivo sicut in subjecto, unitas intellectus possibilis nihil facit ad hoc quod sit una scientia numero in discipulo et magistro; intellectum enim passivum constat non esse eumdem in diversis, quum sit potentia materialis. Unde hæc ratio non est ad propositum, secundum ejus positionem.
Caput 76
[lib.2.cap.76.n.1] CHAPTER LXXVI—That the Active Intellect is not a separately Subsisting Intelligence, but a Faculty of the Soul
WE may further conclude that neither is the active intellect one in all men, as Alexander and Avicenna suppose, though they do not suppose the potential intellect to be one in all men.
4. Plato supposed knowledge in us to be caused by Ideas, which he took to subsist apart by themselves. But clearly the first principle on which our knowledge depends is the active intellect. If therefore the active intellect is something subsisting apart by itself, the difference will be none, or but slight, between this opinion and that of Plato, which the Philosopher rejects.
5. If the active intellect is an intelligence subsisting apart, its action upon us will either be continual and uninterrupted, or at least we must say that it is not continued or broken off at our pleasure. Now its action is to make the impressions on our phantasy actual terms of intelligence. Either therefore it will do this always or not always. If not always, still it will not do it at our discretion. Either therefore we must be always in the act of understanding, or it will not be in our power actually to understand when we wish.
But it may be said that the active intellect, so far as with it lies, is always in action, but that the impressions in our phantasy are not always becoming actual terms of intelligence, but only when they are disposed thereto; and they are disposed thereto by the act of the cogitative faculty, the use of which is in our power; and therefore actually to understand is in our power; and this is why not all men understand the things whereof they have the impressions in their phantasy, because not all have at command a suitable act of the cogitative faculty, but only those who are accustomed and trained thereto.
But this answer does not appear to be altogether sufficient. That the impressions in phantasy are marshalled by the cogitative faculty to the end that they may become actual terms of understanding and move the potential intellect, does not seem a sufficient account, if it be coupled with the supposition of the potential intellect being a separately subsistent intelligence. This seems to go with the theory of those who say that inferior agents supply only predispositions to final perfection, but that final perfection is the work of an extrinsic agency: which is contrary to the mind of Aristotle: for the human soul does not appear to be worse off for understanding than inferior natures are for their own severally proper activities.
9. In the nature of every cause there is contained a principle sufficient for the natural operation of that cause. If the operation consists in action, there is at hand an active principle, as we see in the powers of the vegetative soul in plants. If the operation consists in receiving impressions, there is at hand a passive principle, as we see in the sentient powers of animals. But man is the most perfect of all inferior causes; and his proper and natural operation is to understand, an operation which is not accomplished without a certain receiving of impressions, inasmuch as every understanding is determined by its object; nor again without action, inasmuch as the intellect makes potential into actual terms of understanding. There must therefore be in the nature of man a proper principle of both operations, to wit, both an active and a potential intellect, and neither of them must be separate in being (or physically distinct), from the soul of man.
10. If the active intellect is an intelligence subsisting apart, it is clearly above the nature of man. But any activity which a man exercises by mere virtue of a supernatural cause is a supernatural activity, as the working of miracles, prophecy, and the like effects, which are wrought by men in virtue of a divine endowment. Since then man cannot understand except by means of the active intellect, it follows, supposing that intellect a separately subsistent being, that to understand is not an operation proper and natural to man; and thus man cannot be defined as intellectual or rational.
11. No agent works except by some power which is formally in the agent as a constituent of its being. But the working both of potential and of active intellect is proper to man: for man produces ideas by abstraction from phantasms, and receives in his mind those ideas; operations which it would never occur to us to think of, did we not experience them in ourselves. The principles therefore to which these operations are attributable, namely, the potential and the active intellect, must be faculties formally existing in us.
12. A being that cannot proceed to its own proper business without being moved thereto by an external principle, is rather driven to act than acts of itself. This is the case with irrational creatures. Sense, moved by an exterior sensible object, makes an impression on the phantasy; and so in order the impression proceeds through all the faculties till it reaches those which move the rest. Now the proper business of man is to understand; and the prime mover in understanding is the active intellect, which makes intellectual impressions whereby the potential intellect is impressed; which potential
intellect, when actualised, moves the will. If then the active intellect has a separate subsistence outside man, the whole of man’s activity depends on an extrinsic principle. Man then will not be his own leader, but will be led by another; and thus will not be master of his own acts, nor deserve praise nor blame; and the whole of moral science and political society will perish: an awkward conclusion. Therefore the active intellect has no subsistence apart from man.
[lib.2.cap.76.n.1] Quod intellectus agens non sit substantia separata, sed aliquid animæ. (I, q. LXXI x, a. iv.) Ex his autem concludi potest quod nec intellectus agens est unus in omnibus, ut Alexander etiam ponit et Avicenna, qui non ponunt intellectum possibilem esse unum omnium. 4. Quum enim agens et recipiens sint proportionata, oportet quod unicuique passivo respondeat proprium activum. Intellectus autem possibilis comparatur ad agentem ut proprium passivum sive susceptivum ipsius; habet enim se ad eum agens sicut ars ad materiam, ut dicitur, De anima, III, c. v. Si igitur intellectus possibilis est aliquid animæ humanæ, multiplicatum secundum multitudinem individuorum, ut ostensum est (c. lxxiii), et intellectus etiam agens erit hujusmodi, et non erit unus omnium. 2. Adhuc, Intellectus agens non facit species intelligibiles actu ut ipse per eas intelligat, maxime sicut substantia separata, quum non sit in potentia; sed ut per eas intelligat intellectus possibilis. Non igitur facit eas nisi tales quales competunt intellectui possibili ad intelligendum. Tales autem facit eas qualis est ipse; nam omne agens agit sibi simile. Est igitur intellectus agens proportionatus intellectui possibili; et sic, quum intellectus possibilis sit pars animæ, intellectus non erit substantia separata. 3. Amplius, Sicut materia prima perficitur per formas naturales quæ sunt extra animam, ita intellectus possibilis perficitur per formas intellectas in actu. Sed formæ naturales recipiuntur in materia prima, non per actionem alicujus substantia separata tantum, sed per actionem formæ ejusdem generis, scilicet quæ est in materia; sicut hæc caro generatur per formam quæ est in his carnibus et in his ossibus, ut probat Aristoteles, Metaphys. VII, c. viii, in fine. Si igitur intellectus possibilis sit pars animæ et non sit substantia separata, ut probatum est (c. lix), intellectus agens, per cujus actionem fiunt species intelligibiles in ipso, non erit aliqua substantia separata, sed aliqua virtus activa animæ. 4. Item, Plato posuit scientiam in nobis causari ab « ideis », quas ponebat esse quasdam substantias separatas; quam-quidem positionem Aristoteles improbat, Metaphys. I, c. vi et vii. Constat autem quod scientia nostra dependet ab intellectu agente sicut ex primo principio. Si igitur intellectus agens est quædam substantia separata, nulla esset vel modica differentia inter opinionem istam et platonicam a Philosopho improbatam. 5. Adhuc, Si intellectus agens est quædam substantia separata, oportet quod ejus actio sit continua et non intercisa, vel saltem oportet dicere quod non continuetur et intercidatur ad nostrum arbitrium. Actio autem ejus est facere phantasmata intelligibilia actu. Aut igitur hoc semper faciet, aut non semper. Si non semper, non tamen hoc faciet ad arbitrium nostrum; sed tunc intelligimus actu quando phantasmata fiunt intelligibilia actu; igitur oportet quod vel semper intelligamus, vel quod non sit in potestate nostra actu intelligere. 6. Præterea, Comparatio substantia separatæ ad omnia phantasmata quæ sunt in quibuscumque hominibus, est una; sicut comparatio solis est una ad omnes calores. Res autem sensibiles similiter sentiunt sentientes et inscii, et per consequens eadem phantasmata sunt in utrisque. Similiter igitur fient intelligibilia ab intellectu agente. Uterque ergo similiter intelliget. Potest autem dici quod intellectus agens semper agit quantum in se est, sed non semper phantasmata fiunt intelligibilia actu, sed solum quando sunt ad hoc disposita; disponuntur autem ad hoc per actum cogitativæ virtutis, cujus usus est in nostra potestate; et ideo intelligere actu est in nostra potestate; et ob hoc etiam contingit quod non omnes homines intelligunt ea quorum habent phantasmata; quia non omnes habent actum virtutis cogitativæ convenientem, sed solum qui sunt instructi et consueti. Videtur autem quod hæc responsio non sit omnino sufficiens. 1. Hæc enim dispositio quæ fit per co-gitationem ad intelligendum, oportet quod sit vel dispositio intellectus possibilis ad recipiendum formas intelligibiles ab intellectu agente fluentes, ut Avicenna dicit, De anima, part. I, c. v, vel quia disponuntur phantasmata ut fiant intelligibilia actu, sicut Averrhoes, De anima, lib. III, et Alexander dicunt. Primum autem horum non videtur esse conveniens, quia intellectus possibilis secundum suam naturam est in potentia ad species intelligibiles actu; unde comparatur ad eas sicut diaphanum ad lucem vel ad species coloris. Non autem indiget aliquid, in cujus natura est recipere formam aliquam, disponi ulterius ad formam illam, nisi forte sint in illo contrariæ dispositiones; sicut materia aquæ disponitur ad formam aeris per remotionem frigiditatis et densitatis. Nihil autem contrarium est in intellectu possibili, quod possit impedire cujuscumque speciei intelligibilis susceptionem; nam species intelligibiles, etiam contrariorum, in intellectu non sunt contrariæ, ut probat Aristoteles, Metaph. VII, c. viii, quum unum sit ratio cognoscendi aliud; falsitas autem quæ accidit in judicio intellectus componentis et dividentis, provenit non ex eo quod in intellectu possibili sint aliqua intellecta, sed ex eo quod ei aliqua desunt. Non igitur, quantum in se est, intellectus possibilis indiget aliqua præparatione ut suscipiat species intelligibles ab intellectu agente fluentes. 2. Præterea, Colores, facti visibles actu per lucem, pro certo imprimunt suam similitudinem in diaphanum et per consequens in visum. Si igitur ipsa phantasmata, illustrata ab intellectu agente, non imprimunt suas similitudines in intellectum possibile, sed solum disponunt ipsum ad recipiendum, non esset comparatio phantasmatum ad intellectum possibile sicut colorum ad visum, ut Aristoteles ponit, De anima, III, c. iv. 3. Item, Secundum hoc, phantasmata non essent per se necessaria ad intellectum et per consequens nec sensus, sed solum per accidens, quasi excitantia et præparantia intellectum possibile ad recipiendum; quod est opinionis plato-nicæ, et contra ordinem generationis intellectus et scientiæ, quem ponit Aristoteles, Metahys. I, c. i, et Analyt. poster. II, c. xviii, dicens quod « ex sensu fit memoria, ex multis memoriis unum experimentum, ex multis experimentis universalis acceptio, quæ est scientiæ et intellectus. » Est autem hæc positio Avicennæ, Metaph. tract. ix, c. v, consona his quæ de generatione rerum naturalium dicit; ponit enim quod omnia agentia inferiora solum per suas actiones præparant materiam ad suscipiendas formas quæ effluunt in materias ab intellectia agente separata; unde et eadem ratione ponit quod phantasmata præparant intellectum possibile, formæ autem intelligibiles fluunt a substantia separata. Similiter autem quod per cogitationem disponantur phantasmata ad hoc quod fiant intelligibilia actu et moventia intellectum possibile, conveniens non videtur, si intellectus agens ponatur substantia separata; hoc enim videtur esse conforme positioni dicentium quod inferiora agentia sunt solum disponentia ad ultimam perfectionem, ultima autem perfectio est ab agente separato; quod est contra sententiam Aristotelis, Metaph. VII, c. viii; non enim videtur imperfectius se habere anima humana ad in-telligendum quam inferiores naturæ ad proprias operationes. 4. Amplius, Effectus nobiliores in istis inferioribus producuntur non solum ab agentibus superioribus, sed requirunt agentia sui generis; hominem enim generat sol et homo; similiter videmus in aliis animalibus perfectis quod quædam ignobilia animalia ex solis tantum actione generantur absque principio activo sui generis; sicut patet in animalibus generatis ex putrefactione. Intelligere autem est nobilissimus effectus qui est in istis inferioribus. Non igitur sufficit ponere, ad ipsum, agens remotum, nisi etiam ponatur agens proximum. Hæc autem ratio contra Avicennam non procedit, nam ipse ponit omne animal posse generari absque semine. 5. Adhuc, Intentio effectus demonstrat agentem; unde animalia generata ex putrefactione non sunt ex intentione naturæ inferioris, sed superioris tantum, quia producuntur ab agente superiori tantum; propter quod Aristoteles, Metaphys. VII, c. ix, dicit ea fieri casu; animalia autem quæ fiunt ex semine sunt ex intentione naturæ superioris et inferioris.
Caput 77
[lib.2.cap.77.n.1] CHAPTER LXXVII—That it is not impossible for the Potential and the Active Intellect to be united in the one Substance of the Soul
SOME one perhaps may think it impossible for one and the same substance, that of our soul, to be in potentiality to receive all intellectual impressions (which is the function of the potential intellect), and to actualise those impressions (which is the function of the active intellect); since nothing acts as it is in potentiality to receive, but only as it is in actual readiness to act. But, looking at the matter rightly, no inconvenience or difficulty will be found in this view of the union of the active and potential intellect in the one substance of the soul. For a thing may well be in potentiality in one respect and in actuality in another; and this we find to be the condition of the intellectual soul in its relation to phantasms, or impressions in phantasy. For the intellectual soul has something in actuality, to which the phantasm is in potentiality; and on the other hand the intellectual soul potentiality that which is actually found in the phantasms. For the substance of the human soul has the attribute of immateriality: but it is not thereby assimilated to this or that definite thing; and yet such assimilation is requisite for our soul to know this or that thing definitely, since all cognition takes place by some likeness of the object known being stamped on the knowing mind. Thus then the intellectual soul remains in potentiality, open to the reception of definite impressions in the likeness of things that come within our observation and knowledge, which are the natures of sensible things. These definite natures of sensible things are represented to us by phantasms, which however have not yet reached the stage of being objects of intellect, seeing that they are likenesses of sensible things under material conditions, which are individualising properties, — and besides they are in bodily organs. They are therefore not actual objects of understanding; and yet since in the case of this man [or other sensible object], whose likeness is represented by phantasms, it is possible to fix upon a universal nature stripped of all individualising conditions, these phantasms are potentially intelligible. Thus then they have a potentially intelligible being, but an actually definite likeness to things, whereas in the intellectual soul, as we saw, the situation was the other way about. There is then in the intellectual soul a power exercising its activity upon phantasms, making them actual
objects of understanding; and this power of the soul is called the active intellect. There is also in the soul a power that is potentially open to definite impressions of sensible things; and this power is the potential intellect.
But the intellectual soul does not lie open to receive impressions of the likenesses of things that are in phantasms in the way that the likeness exists in the phantasm, but according as those likenesses are raised to a higher stage, by being abstracted from individualising material conditions and rendered actual objects, or terms, of understanding. And therefore the action of the active intellect upon the phantasms precedes their being received into the potential intellect; and thus the prime agency is not attributable to the phantasms, but to the active intellect.
There are some animals that see better by night than by day, because they have weak eyes, which are stimulated by a little light, but dazzled by much. And the case is similar with our understanding, which is “to the clearest truths as the bat’s eye to the sun” (Aristotle, Metaph. I, Appendix): hence the little intellectual light that is connatural to us is sufficient for us to understand with. But that the intellectual light connatural to our soul is sufficient to produce the action of the active intellect, will be clear to any one who considers the necessity for positing such an intellect. Our soul is found to be in potentiality to intelligible objects as sense to sensible objects: for as we are not always having sensations, so we are not always understanding. These intelligible objects Plato assumed to exist by themselves, calling them ‘Ideas’: hence it was not necessary for him to posit any ‘active intellect’ rendering objects intelligible. But if this Platonic position were true, the absolutely better objects of intelligence should be better also relatively to us, and be better understood by us, which is manifestly not the case: for things are more intelligible to us which are nigher to sense, though in themselves they are less excellent objects of understanding. Hence Aristotle was moved to lay down the doctrine, that the things which are intelligible to us are not any self-existent objects of understanding, but are gathered from objects of sense. Hence he had to posit some faculty to do this work of making terms of understanding: that faculty is the active intellect. The active intellect therefore is posited to make terms of understanding proportionate to our capacity. Such work does not transcend the measure of intellectual light connatural to us. Hence there is no difficulty in attributing the action of the active intellect to the native light of our soul, especially as Aristotle compares the active intellect to light (De anima, III, v, 2).
[lib.2.cap.77.n.1] Quod non est imposibile intellectum possibile, et agentem, in una substantia animæ convenire. Videbitur autem forsan alicui hoc esse imposibile quod una et eadem substantia, scilicet nostræ animæ, sit in potentia ad omnia intelligibilia (quod pertinet ad intellectum possibilem) et faciat ea actu (quod est intellectus agentis), quum nihil agat secundum quod est in potentia, sed secundum quod est in $^3$ actu. Unde non videbitur quod agens et possibilis intellectus possint in una substantia animæ convenire. Si quis autem recte inspiciat, nihil inconveniensaut difficile sequitur. Nihil enim prohibet hoc, respectu illius, esse secundum aliquid in potentia et secundum aliud in actu, sicut in rebus natu- $^1$ — E, F: » Opus naturale. » A, B, C, D, E, F, omittunt. « Propria. » $^2$ $^3$ ralibus videmus; aer enim est actu humidus et potentia siccus, terra autem e converso. Hæc autem comparatio inventur esse inter animam intellectivam et phantasmata. Habet enim anima intellectiva aliquid in actu, ad quod phantasma est in potentia; et ad aliquid est in potentia, quod in phantasmatibus actu inventur. Habet enim substantia animæ humanæ immaterialitatem; et, sicut ex dictis patet (c. xlix, l et li), ex hoc habet naturam intellectualem, quia omnis substantia immaterialis est hujusmodi. Ex hoc autem nondum habet quod assimiletur huic vel illi rei determinate, quod requiritur de hoc quod anima nostra hanc vel illam rem determinate cognoscat; omnis enim cognitio fit secundum similitudinem cogniti in cognoscente. Remanet igitur ipsa anima intellectiva in potentia ad determinatas similitudines rerum cognoscibilium a nobis, quæ sunt naturæ rerum sensibilium. Et has quidem determinate naturæ rerum sensibilium præsentant nobis phantasmata, quæ tamen nondum pervenerunt ad esse intelligibile, quum sint similitudines rerum sensibilium etiam secundum conditiones materiales, quæ sunt proprietates individuales et sunt etiam in organis materialibus. Non igitur sunt intelligibilia actu; et tamen quia, in hoc homine cujus similitudinem repræsentant phantasmata, est accipere naturam universalem denudatam ab omnibus conditionibus individuantibus, sunt intelligibilia in potentia. Sic igitur habent intelligibilitatem in potentia, determinationem autem similitudinis rerum in actu. E contrario autem erat in anima intellectiva. Est igitur in anima intellectiva virtus activa in phantasmata, faciens ea intelligibilia actu; et hæc potentia animæ vocatur intellectus agens. Est etiam in ea virtus quæ est in potentia ad determinatas similitudines rerum sensibilium; et hæc est potentia intellectus possibilis. Differt tamen hoc quod inventur in anima ab eo quod inventur in agentibus naturalibus, quia ibi unum est in potentia ad aliud secundum eumdem modum quo in altero inventur actu; nam materia aeris est in potentia ad formam aquæ eo modo quo est in aqua; et ideo corpora naturalia quæ communicabant in materia, eodem ordine agunt et patiuntur ad invicem; anima autem intellectiva non est in potentia ad similitudines rerum quæ sunt in phantasmatibus, per modum illum quo sunt ibi, sed secundum quod illæ similitudines elevantur ad aliquid altius, ut scilicet sint abstractæ a conditionibus individuantibus materialibus, ex quo fiunt intelligibiles actu; et ideo actio intellectus agentis in phantasmata praæcedit receptionem intellectus possibilis, ac sic principalitas actionis non attribuitur phantasmatibus, sed intellectui agenti; propter quod Aristoteles dicit, De anima, III, c. v, quod se habet ad possibilem sicut ars ad materiam. — Hujus autem exemplum omnino simile esset, si oculus, simul cum hoc quod est diaphanum et susceptivus colorum, haberet tantum de luce quod posset colores facere visibles actu; siut quædam animalia dicuntur sui oculi luce sufficienter sibi illuminare objecta, propter quod de nocte vident magis, in die vero minus; sunt enim debilium oculorum, quia a parva luce moventur, ad multam autem confunduntur. Cui etiam simile est in intellectu nostro, qui ad ea quæ sunt manifestissima se habet sicut oculus noctuæ ad solem; unde parvum lumen intelligibile quod est nobis conna-turale sufficit ad nostrum intelligere. 1 Unicuique passivo respondet suum activum, sicut mobili suum motivum. In rebus autem perfectis, in eadem re, inventur activum et passivum, non in imperfectis: ideo perfecta moventur ex se, scilicet animalia, non imperfecta, scilicet gravia, etc. Et quia omne quod movetur ab alio movetur, nunquam est verum dicere quod idem penitus sit movens et motum; sed in motis ex se una pars movet et alia movetur, in anima autem rationali est reperire potentiam passivam. Sicut enim materia recipit formas reales realiter, ita anima recipit formas spirituales sive intentionales, vel formas reales, intentionaliter et spiritualiter, sed anima intellectiva est perfectissima inter omnes potentias receptivas: ergo, in eadem anima erit reperire potentiam activam, sive correspondentem; ita quod sicut animal est totum integrale, et per unam partem movet, per aliam movetur, ita anima est totum potentiale, per unam potentiam agit, intelligibilia per aliam recipit. Nec potest dici quod hoc sit per unam potentiam quæ uno modo agat, alio modo recipiat, quia id quod agit debet virtute continere omnes alias formas quæ aguntur per ipsum, non autem formaliter, sicut patet de sole, qui virtute calidus est, quia calefactionem efficit, non autem formaliter quia nunquam calefit. Ita oportet quod intellectus agens contineat in se omnes formas intelligibles, nullam tamen habeat formaliter. Ergo oportet ponere aliam potentiam quæ eas recipiat et formaliter habeat. » (Ex cod. G. de F.) Quod autem lumen intelligibile nostræ animæ connaturale sufficiat ad faciendum actionem intellectus agentis, patet, si quis consideret necessitatem ponendi intellectum agentem. Inveniebatur enim anima nostra in potentia ad intelligibilia, sicut sensus ad sensibilia; sicut enim non semper sentimus, ita non semper intelligimus. Hæc autem intelligibilia quæ anima intellectiva humana intelligit Plato posuit esse intelligibilia per seipsa, scilicet ideas; unde non erat ei necessarium ponere intellectum agentem intelligibilia. Si autem hoc esset verum, oporteret quod, quanto aliqua sunt secundum se magis intelligibilia, eo magis intelligenterur a nobis; quod patet esse falsum; nam magis sunt nobis intelligibilia quæ sunt sensui proximiora, quæ in se sunt minus intelligibilia. Unde Aristoteles fuit motus ad ponendum, De anima, III, c. iv et v, quod ea quæ sunt nobis intelligibilia non sunt aliqua exsistentia intelligibilia per seipsa, sed fiunt ex sensibilibus; unde oportuit quod poneret virtutem quæ hoc faceret; et hæc est intellectus agens. Ad hoc ergo ponitur intellectus agens ut faciat intellectibilia nobis proportionata. Hoc autem non excedit modum luminis intelligibilis nobis connaturalis. Unde nihil prohibet ipsi lumini nostræ animæ attribuere actionem intellectus agentis, et præcipue quum Aristoteles, De anima, III, c. v, intellectum agentem comparet lumini.
Caput 78
[lib.2.cap.78.n.1] CHAPTER LXXVIII—That it was not the opinion of Aristotle that the Active Intellect is a separately Subsistent Intelligence, but rather that it is a part of the Soul
[lib.2.cap.78.n.1] Quod non fuit sententia Aristotelis quod intellectus agens sit substantia separata, sed magis quod sit aliquid animæ. Quia vero plures opinioni suprapositæ assentiunt, credentes eam fuisse opinionem Aristotelis, ostendendum est, ex verbis ejus De anima, III, quod ipse hoc non sentit de intellectu agente quod sit substantia separata. 1. Dicit enim primo (vid. not. 1, n. 12) quod, « sicut in omni natura est aliquid quasi materia in unoquoque genere (et hoc est in potentia ad omnia quæ sunt illius generis), et aliquid quasi efficiens (quod facit omnia quæ sunt illius ge-neris), sicut se habet ars ad materiam, necesse est et in anima esse has differentias, » et hujusmodi quidem, scilicet: quod in anima est sicut materia, est intellectus possibilis, in quo fiunt omnia intelligibilia; ille vero qui in anima est sicut efficiens causa, est intellectus quo est omnia facere, scilicet intelligibilia in actu, id est intellectus agens, qui est sicut habitus et non sicut potentia. Qualiter autem dixerit intellectum agentem habitum, exponit subjungens (not. 1, n. 12) quod est sicut lumen; quodam enim modo lumen facit potentia colores esse actu colores, in quantum scilicet facit eos visibles actu; hoc autem circa intelligibilia attribuitur intellectui agenti. Ex his autem manifeste habetur quod intellectus agens non sit substantia separata, sed magis aliquid animæ; expresse enim dicit quod intellectus possibilis, et agens, sunt differentia animæ, et quod sunt in anima; neutra ergo earum est substantia separata. 2. Adhuc, Ratio ejus hoc idem ostendit (not. 1, n. 12): « Quia in omni natura in qua inventur potentia et actus, est aliquid quasi materia, quod est in potentia ad ea quæ sunt illius generis, et aliquid quasi agens, quod reducit potentiam in actum, sicut in artificialibus est ars in materia; » sed anima intellectiva est quædam natura in qua inventur potentia et actus, quum quando sit actu intelligens et quando in potentia; est igitur, in natura animæ intellectivæ, aliquid quasi materia, quod est in potentia ad omnia intelligibilia, quod dicitur intellectus possibilis, et aliquid quasi causa efficiens, quod facit omnia in actu, et dicitur intellectus agens. Uterque igitur intellectus, secundum demonstrationem Aristotelis, est in natura animæ, et non aliquid separatum, secundum esse, a corpore cujus anima est actus. 3. Amplius, Aristoteles dicit (not. 1, n. 12) quod intellectus agens est sicut habitus, quod est lumen. Habitus autem non signatur ut aliquid per se existens, sed alicujus habentis. Non est igitur intellectus agens aliquid substantia separatim per se existens, sed est aliquid animæ humanæ. — Non autem intelligitur lit- 1 omisso: « unde. » 2 5 tera Aristotelis ut habitus dicatur esse effectus intellectus agentis, sed ut sit sensus: Intellectus agens facit hominem intelligere omnia, quod est sicut habitus. Hæc enim est diffinitio habitus, ut commentator Averrhoes ibidem dicit, quod habens habitum intelligat per ipsum quod est sibi proprium, ex se, et quando voluerit, absque hoc quod indigeat in eo aliquo extrinseco; expresse enim assimilat habitui non ipsum factum, sed intellectum quo est omnia facere. — Nec tamen intelligendum est quod intellectus agens sit habitus per modum quo habitus est in secunda specie qualitatis, secundum quod quidam dixerunt intellectum agentem esse habitum principiorum; quia habitus ille principiorum est acceptus a sensibilibus, ut probat Aristoteles, Analytic. poster. II, c. viii, et sic oportet quod sit effectus intellectus agentis, cujus est pbantasmata, quæ sunt intellecta in potentia, facere intellecta in actu. Sed accipitur habitus secundum quod dividitur contra privationem et potentiam, sicut omnis forma et actus potest dici habitus; et hoc apparet, quia dicit hoc modo intellectum agentem esse habitum sicut lumen habitus est (not. 1. n. 12). 4. Deinde subjungit (not. 1, n. 13) quod hic intellectus, scilicet agens, « est separatus et immixtus et impassibilis et substantia actu ens. » Horum autem quatuor quæ attribuit intellectui agenti, duo supra expresse de intellectu possibili dixerat, scilicet quod sit immixtus et quod sit separatus. Tertium, scilicet quod sit impassibilis, sub distinctione dixerat; ostendit enim primo (not. 1, n. 2) quod non est passibilis sicut sensus, et postmodum (not 1, n. 3) ostendit quod, communiter accipiendo pati, passibilis est, in quantum scilicet est in potentia ad intelligibilia. Quartum vero omnino negaverat de intellectu possibili, dicendo quod « erat in potentia ad intelligibilia, et nihil horum erat actu ante intelligere. » Sic igitur, in duobus primis, intellectus possibilis convenit cum agente; intertio, partim convenit et partim differt; in quarto autem, omnino differt agens a possibili. Has quatuor conditiones agentis probat per unam rationem, subjungens (not. 1, n. 13: « Semper enim honora-bilius est agens patiente, et principium (scilicet activum) materia; » supra enim (not. 1, n. 12) dixerat quod « intellectus agens est sicut causa efficiens, et possibilis sicut materia. » Per hoc autem medium concluduntur duo prima sic: Agens est honorabilius patiente et materia; sed possibilis, qui est sicut patiens et materia, est separatus et immixtus, ut supra (c. lxii) probatum est; ergo multo magis agens. Alia vero per hoc medium sic excluduntur: Agens in hoc est honorabilius patiente et materia quod comparatur ad ipsum sicut agens et actu ens ad patiens et ens in potentia; intellectus autem possibilis est patiens quodammodo et potentia ens; intellectus igitur agens est non patiens, et actu ens. — Patet autem quod nec ex his verbis Aristotelis haberi potest quod intellectus agens sit quædam substantia separata, sed quod sit separatus hoc modo quo supra dixit de possibili, scilicet ut non habeat organum. Quod autem dicit quod est « substantia actu ens, » non repugnat ei quod « substantia animæ est in potentia, » ut supra (c. lxxvi) ostensum est. 5. Deinde subjungit (not. 1, n. 14): « Idem autem est, secundum actum, scientia rei; » in quo Commentator dicit quod differt intellectus agens a possibili; nam, in intellectu agente, idem est intelligens et intellectum, non autem in possibili. Hoc autem manifeste est contra intentionem Aristotelis; nam supra (not. 1, n. 4, 8 et 11) eadem verba dixerat de intellectu possibili, ubi dixit de intellectu possibili quod « ipse intelligibilis est sicut intelligibilia; in his enim quæ sine materia sunt, idem est intelligens et quod intelligitur; scientia namque speculativa et quod speculatum est idem est. » Manifeste enim, per hoc quod intellectus possibilis, prout est actu intelligens, idem est cum eo quod intelligitur, vult ostendere quod intellectus possibilis intelligitur sicut alia intelligibilia. — Et primum, supra (not. 1, n. 7) dixerat quod « intellectus possibilis est quodammodo intelligibilia; sed nihil actu est antequam intelligat; » ubi expresse dat intelligere quod, per hoc quod intelligit actu, fit ipsa intelligibilia. Nec est mirum si hoc dicat de intellectu possibili, quia hoc etiam supra (not. 1, 1 A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J.: « Ut sit sensus: agens facit intelligere omnia quod est habitus. » n. 1 et 3) dixerat de sensu et sensibili secundum actum; sensus enim fit actu per speciem sensatam in actu, et similiter intellectus possibilis fit actu per speciem intelligibilem actu; et hac ratione intellectus in actu dicitur ipsum intelligibile in actu. Est igitur dicendum quod, postquam Aristoteles determinavit de intellectu possibili et agente,hic incipit determinare de intellectu in actu, dicens (not. I, n. xiv) quod « scientia in actu est idem rei scitæ in actu. » 6. Deinde dicit (not. 1, n. 14): « Qui vero secundum potentiam tempore prior in uno est, omnino autem neque in tempore. » Qua quidem distinctione inter potentiam et actum in pluribus locis utitur, scilicet quod actus, secundum naturam, est prior potentia; tempore vero, in uno et eodem quod mutatur de potentia in actum, est prior potentia actu; simpliciter vero loquendo, non est potentia etiam tempore prior actu, quia potentia non reducitur in actum nisi per actum. Dicit ergo quod intellectus qui est secundum potentiam (scilicet possibilis), prout est in potentia, prior est tempore quam intellectus in actu; et hoc dico in uno et eodem, non tamen omnino (id est universaliter); quia intellectus possibilis reducitur in actum per intellectum agentem, qui est in actu, ut dixit, et iterum per aliquem intellectum possibile factum ' actu; unde dicit, Physic. III, quod ante addiscere, indiget aliquis docente ut reducatur de potentia in actum. Sic igitur in verbis istis ostendit ordinem intellectus possibilis, prout est in potentia, ad intellectum in actu. 7. Deinde dicit (not. 1, n. 14): « Sed non aliquando quidem intelligit, aliquando autem non intelligit; » in quo ostendit differentiam intellectus in actu et intellectus possibilis. Supra enim (not. 1, n. 4) dixit de intellectu possibili quod non semper intelligit, sed quando non intelligit (quando scilicet est in potentia ad intelligibilia), quando intelligit (quando scilicet est in actu ipsa). Intellectus autem per hoc fit actu quod est ipsa intelligibilia, ut jam dixit (not. 1, n. 4 et 7). Unde non competit ei quandoque intelligere et quandoque non intelligere. 8. Deinde subjungit (not. 1, n. 15): « Separatum autem hoc solum quod vere est; » quod non potest intelligi de agente; non enim ipse solus est separatus, quia jam idem dixerat (not. 1, n. 4) de intellectu possibili; nec potest intelligi de possibili, quia jam idem dixerat (not. 1, n. 13) de agente. Relinquitur ergo quod dicatur de eo quod comprehendit utrumque, scilicet de intellectu in actu, de quo loquebatur; quia hoc solum in anima nostra est separatum, non utens organo, quod pertinet ad intellectum in actu, id est illa pars animæ qua intelligimus actu, comprehendens possibilem et agentem. Et ideo subjungit (not. 1, n. 15) quod « hoc solum animæ immortale et perpetuum est, » quasi a corpore non dependens, quum sit separatum.
Caput 79
[lib.2.cap.79.n.1] CHAPTER LXXIX—That the Human Soul does not Perish with the Body
EVERY intelligent subsisting being is imperishable (Chap. ): but the human soul is an intelligent subsisting being.
2. Nothing is destroyed by that which makes its perfection. But the perfection of the human soul consists in a certain withdrawal from the body: for the soul is perfected by knowledge and virtue: now in knowledge
there is greater perfection, the more the view is fixed on high generalisations, or immaterial things; while the perfection of virtue consists in a man’s not following his bodily passions, but tempering and restraining them by reason. — Nor is it of any avail to reply that the perfection of the soul consists in its separation from the body in point of activity, but to be separated from the body in point of being is its destruction. For the activity of a thing shows its substance and being, and follows upon its nature: thus the activity of a thing can only be perfected inasmuch as its substance is perfected. If then the soul is perfected in activity by relinquishing the body and bodily things, its substance cannot fail in being by separation from the body.
4. A natural craving cannot be in vain. But man naturally craves after permanent continuance: as is shown by this, that while existence is desired by all, man by his understanding apprehends existence, not in the present moment only, as dumb animals do, but existence absolutely. Therefore man attains to permanence on the part of his soul, whereby he apprehends existence absolute and for all time.
6. Intelligible being is more permanent than sensible being. But the substratum of material bodies (materia prima) is indestructible, much more the potential intellect, the recipient of intelligible forms. Therefore the human soul, of which the potential intellect is a part, is indestructible.
8. No form is destroyed except either by the action of the contrary, or by the destruction of the subject wherein it resides, or by the failure of its cause. Thus heat is destroyed by the action of cold: by the destruction of the eye the power of sight is destroyed; and the light of the atmosphere fails by the failure of the sun’s presence, which was its cause. But the human soul cannot be destroyed by the action of its contrary, for it has no contrary, since by the potential intellect the soul is cognitive and receptive of all contraries. Nor again by the destruction of the subject in which it resides, for it has been shown above that the human soul is a form not dependent on the body for
its being. Nor lastly by the failure of its cause, for it can have no cause but one which is eternal, as will be shown (Chap. ). In no way therefore can the human soul be destroyed.
9. If the human soul is destroyed by the destruction of the body, it must be weakened by the weakening of the body. But the fact is that if any faculty of the soul is weakened by the body being weakened, that is only incidentally, inasmuch as that faculty of the soul stands in need of a bodily organ, as the sight is weakened by the weakening of the organ of sight, but only incidentally, as may be shown by this consideration: if any weakness fell essentially upon the faculty, the faculty would not be restored by the restoration of the organ; but now we see that however much the faculty of sight seems weakened, it is restored, if only the organ is restored. Since then the soul’s faculty of understanding needs no bodily organ, the understanding itself is not weakened, neither essentially nor incidentally, either by old age or by any other weakness of body. But if in the working of the understanding there happens fatigue or hindrance through bodily weakness, this is not due to weakness of the understanding itself, but to weakness of other faculties that the understanding has need of, to wit, the phantasy, the memory, and the cogitative faculty.
10. The same is evidenced by the very words of Aristotle: “Moving causes pre-exist, but formal causes are along with the things whereof they are causes: for when a man is well, then there is health. But whether anything remains afterwards, is a point to consider: in some cases there may well be something remaining: the soul is an instance, not the whole soul, but the intelligence: as for the whole soul remaining, that is perhaps an impossibility.” Clearly then, in speaking of forms, he wishes to speak of the intellect, which is the form of man, as remaining after its matter, that is, after the body. It is clear also that though Aristotle makes the soul a form, yet he does not represent it as non- subsistent and consequently perishable, as Gregory of Nyssa imputes to him: for he excludes the intellectual soul from the general category of other forms, saying that it remains after the body and is a subsistent being (substantiam quandam).
Hereby is banished the error of the impious in whose person it is said: We were born out of nothingness, and hereafter we shall be as though we had never been (Wisd. ii, 2); in whose person again Solomon says: One is the perishing of man and beast, and even is the lot of both: as man dies, so do beasts die: all breathe alike, and man hath no advantage over beasts (Eccles iii, 19): that he does not say this in his own person, but in the person of the ungodly, is clear from what he says at the end, as it were drawing a conclusion: Till the dust return to the earth, from whence it came; and the spirit go back to the God who gave it (Eccles xii, 7).
[lib.2.cap.79.n.1] Quod anima humana, corrupto corpore, non corrumpitur. (I, q. Lxxv, a. vii.) Ex praemissis igitur manifeste ostendi potest animam humanam non corrumpi, corrupto corpore. 1. Ostensum est enim supra (c. Lv) omnem substantiam intellectualem esse incorruptibilem. Anima autem hominis est quædam substantia intellectualis, ut ostensum est (c. Lvi-Lxxviii). Oportet igitur animam humanam incorruptibilem esse. 2. Adhuc, Nulla res corrumpitur ex eo in quo consistit sua perfectio; hæ enim mutationes sunt contrariæ, scilicet ad perfectionem et ad corruptionem. Perfectio autem animæ humanæ consistit in abstractione quadam a corpore: perficitur enim anima scientia et virtute; secundum scientiam autem tanto magis perficitur quanto magis immaterialia considerat; virtutis autem perfectio consistit in hoc quod homo corporis passiones non sequatur, sed eas secundum rationem temperet et refrenet. Non ergo corruptio animæ consistit in hoc quod a corpore separatur. Si autem dicatur quod perfectio animæ consistit in separatione ejus a corpore secundum operationem, corruptio autem in separatione secundum esse, non convenient obviatur. Operatio enim rei demonstrat substantiam et esse ipsius; quia unumquodque operatur secundum quod est ens, et propria operatio rei sequitur propriam ipsius naturam. Non potest igitur perfici operatio alicujus rei, nisi secundum quod perficitur ejus substantia. Si igitur anima secundum operationem suam perficitur in relinquendo corpus et corporea, substantia sua in esse suo non deficiet per hoc quod a corpore separatur. 3. Item, Proprium perfectivum hominis secundum animam, est aliquid incorruptibile; propria enim operatio hominis, in quantum hujusmodi, est intelligere; per hanc enim differt a brutis et plantis et inanimatis; intelligere enim est universalium et incorruptibilium, in quantum hujusmodi. Perfectiones autem oportet esse perfectibilibus proportionatas. Ergo anima humana est incorruptibilis. 4. Amplius, Impossibile est appetitum naturalem esse frustra. Sed homo naturaliter appetit perpetuo manere; quod patet ex hoc quod esse est quod ab omnibus appetitur; homo autem per intellectum apprehendit esse, non solum ut nunc, sicut bruta animalia, sed simpliciter. Consequitur ergo homo perpetuitatem secundum animam, qua esse simpliciter et secumdum omne tempus apprehendit. 5. Item, Unumquodque quod recipitur in aliquo recipitur in eo secundum modum ejus in quo est. Formæ autem reum recipiuntur in intellectu possibili prout sunt intelligibiles actu; sunt autem intelligibiles actu prout sunt immateriales et universales, et per consequens incorruptibles. Ergo intellectus possibilis est incorruptibilis. Sed, sicut probatum est supra (c. lix et lxi), intellectus possibilis est aliquid animæ humanæ. Est igitur anima humana incorruptibilis. 6. Adhuc, Esse intelligibile est permanentius quam esse sensibile. Sed id quod se habet in rebus sensibilibus per modum proprium primi recipientis, est incorruptibile secundum suam substantiam, scilicet materia prima. Multo igitur fortius intellectus possibilis, qui est receptivus formarum intelligibilium. Ergo et anima humana, cujus intellectus possibilis est pars, est incorruptibilis. 7. Amplius, Faciens est honorabilius facto, ut etiam Aristoteles dicit, De anima, III, c. v. Sed intellectus agens facit actu intelligibilia, ut ex præmissis (c. lxxvi-lxxviii) patet. Quum igitur intelligibilia actu, in quantum hujusmodi, sint incorruptibilia, multo fortius intellectus agens erit incorruptibilis. Ergo et anima humana, cujus lumen est intellectus agens, ut ex præmissis patet (c. lxxviii). 8. Item, Nulla forma corrumpitur nisi vel actione contrarii vel per corruptionem sui subjecti vel per defectum suæ causæ: per actionem quidem contrarii, sicut calor destruitur per actionem frigidi; per corruptionem autem sui subjecti, sicut, destructo oculo, destruitur vis visiva; per defectum autem causæ, sicut lumen aeris deficit, deficiente solis præsentia, quæ erat ipsius causa. Sed anima humana non potest corrumpi per actionem contrarii; non est enim ei aliquid contrarium, quum per intellectum possibile em ipsa sit cognoscitiva et receptiva omnium contrariorum. Similiter autem neque per corruptionem sui subjecti; ostensum est enim supra (c. lxviii) quod anima humana est forma non dependens a corpore secundum suum esse. Similiter autem neque per deficientiam suæ causæ, quia non potest habere aliquam causam nisi æternam, ut infra (c. lxxxvii) ostendetur. Nullo igitur modo anima humana corrumpi potest. 9. Adhuc, Si anima humana corrumpitur per corruptionem corporis, oportet quod ejus esse debilitetur per debilitatem corporis. Si autem aliqua virtus animæ debilitetur, debilitato corpore, hoc non est nisi per accidens, in quantum scilicet virtus animæ indiget organo corporali, sicut visus debilitatur, debilitato organo, per accidens tamen; quod ex hoc patet: Si enim ipsi virtuti per se accideret aliqua debilitas, nunquam restauraretur, organo reparato; videmus autem quod, quantumcumque vis visiva videatur debilitata, si organum reparetur, vis visiva restauratur; unde dicit Aristoteles, De anima, I, c. iv, quod, si senex accipiat oculum juvenis, videbit utique sicut juvenis. Quum igitur intellectus sit virtus animæ, quæ non indiget organo, ut ex præmissis (c. lxviii et lxix) patet, ipse non debilitatur neque per se, neque per accidens per senium vel per aliquam aliam debilitatem corporis; si autem in operatione intellectus accidit fatigatio aut impedimentum propter infirmitatem corporis, hoc non est propter debilitatem ipsius intellectus, sed propter debilitatem virium quibus intellectus indiget, scilicet imaginationis, memorativæ et cogitativæ virtutum. Patet igitur quod intellectus humanus est incorruptibilis; ergo et anima humana, quædam substantia. Hoc etiam apparet per auctoritatem Aristotelis; dicit enim, De anima, I, c. iv, quod « intellectus videtur quædam substantia esse, et non corrumpi; » quod autem hoc non possit intelligi de aliqua substantia separata quæ sit intellectus possibilis vel agens, ex præmissis haberi potest. 10. Præterea, Apparet ex ipsis verbis Aristotelis, Metaphys. XII, c. 111, contra Platonem loquentis, quod « causæ moventes præxsisistunt, causæ vero formales sunt simul cum his quorum sunt causæ; quando enim sanatur homo, tunc etiam sanitas est, » et non prius; contra hoc quod Plato posuit formas rerum præxsisistere rebus. Et his dictis postmodum subdit (ibid).: « Si autem posterius aliquid manet perscrutandum est; in quibusdam enim nihil prohibet ut, si est anima talis, non omnis, sed intellectus. » Ex quo patet, quum loquatur de formis, quod vult intellectum, qui est forma hominis, post materiam remanere scilicet post corpus. Patet autem ex præmissis verbis Aristotelis quod, licet ponat animam esse formam, non tamen ponit eam non subsistentem et per consequens corruptibilem (sicut Gregorius Nyssenus ei imponit); nam a generalitate aliarum formarum intellectivam excludit, dicens eam post corpus remanere et substantiam quamdam esse. Præmissis autem sententia catholicæ fidei concordat; dicitur enim in libro De ecclesiasticis dogmatibus: « Solum hominem credimus habere animam substantivam, quæ exuta 1 corpore vivit, et sensus suos atque ingenia vivaciter tenet. Non cum corpore moritur, sicut Arabs asserit 2, neque post modicum intervallum, sicut Zenon dicit, quia substantialiter vivit. » Gennad. massil. c. xvi, in tomo VIII opp. S. Aug. Per hoc autem excluditur error impio rum, ex quorum persona dicitur: Ex nihilo nati sumus, et post hoc erimus tanquam non fuerimus, Sap. 11, 2, et ex quorum persona dicit Salomon: Unus interitus est hominis et jumentorum, et æqua utriusque conditio; sicut moritur homo, sic et illa moriuntur; similiter spirant omnia et nihil habet homo jumento amplius, Eccles., 111, 19; quod enim non ex persona sua, sed impiorum dicat, patet per hoc quod, in fine libri, quasi determinando subjungit: Donec revertatur pulvis in terram suam unde erat, et spiritus redeat ad Deum qui dedit illum, xii, 7. — Infinite etiam sunt auctoritates sacra Scripturæ, quae immortalitatem animæ protestantur.
Caput 80
[lib.2.cap.80.n.1] CHAPTER LXXX, LXXXI—Arguments of those who wish to prove that the Human Soul perishes with the Body, with Replies to the same
ARG. 1. If human souls are multiplied according to the multiplication of bodies, as shown above (Chap. ), then when the bodies perish, the souls cannot remain in their multitude. Hence one of two conclusions must follow: either the human soul must wholly cease to be; or there must remain one soul only, which seems to suit the view of those who make that alone incorruptible which is one in all men, whether that be the active intellect alone, as Alexander says, or with the active also the potential intellect, as Averroes says.
Reply. Whatever things are necessarily in conjunction and proportion with one another, are made many or one together, each by its own cause. If the being of the one depends on the other, its unity or multiplication also will depend on the same: otherwise it will depend on some extrinsic cause. Form then and matter must always be in proportion with one another, and conjoined by a certain natural tie. Hence matter and form must vary together in point of multiplicity and unity. If then the form depends on the matter for its being, the multiplication of the form will depend on the matter, and so will its unity. But if the form is in no such dependence on the matter, then, — though it will still be necessary for the form to be multiplied with the multiplication of the matter, — the unity or multiplicity of the form will not depend on the matter. But it has been shown (Chap. , and , that the human soul is a form not dependent on matter for its being. Hence it follows that, though souls are multiplied as the bodies which they inform are multiplied, still the fact of bodies being many cannot be the cause of souls being many. And therefore there is no need for the plurality of souls to cease with the destruction of their bodies.
Arg. 2. The formal nature (ratio formalis, pp. , ) of things is the cause of their differing in species. But if souls remain many after the perishing of their bodies, they must differ in species, since in souls so remaining the only diversity possible is one of formal nature. But souls do not change their species by the destruction of the body, otherwise they would be destroyed too, for all that changes from species to species is destroyed in the transition. Then they must have been different in species even before they parted from their bodies. But compounds take their species according to their form. So then individual men must differ in species, an awkward conclusion consequent upon the position that souls remain a multitude after their bodies are gone.
. It is not any and every diversity of form that makes a difference of species. The fact of souls separated from their bodies making a multitude follows from their forms being different in substance, inasmuch as the substance
of this soul is different from the substance of that. But this diversity does not arise from the souls differing in their several essential constitutions, but from their being differently commensurate with different bodies: for one soul is commensurate with one body and not with another. These commensurations remain in souls even when their bodies perish, as the substances of the souls also remain, not being dependent on their bodies for their being. For it is by their substances that souls are forms of bodies: otherwise they would be united with their bodies only accidentally, and soul and body would not make up an essential but only an accidental unity. But inasmuch as they are forms, they must be commensurate with their bodies. Hence it is clear that their several different commensuratenesses remain in the departed souls, and consequently plurality.
. It seems quite impossible, on the theory of those who suppose the eternity of the world, for human souls to remain in their multitude after the death of the body. For if the world is from eternity, infinite men have died before our time. If then the souls of the dead remain after death in their multitude, we must say that there is now an actual infinity of souls of men previously dead. But actual infinity is impossible in nature.
Reply. Of supporters of the eternity of the world, some have simply allowed the impossibility, saying that human souls perish altogether with their bodies. Others have said that of all souls there remains one spiritual existence which is common to all, — the active intellect according to some, or with the active also the potential intellect according to others. Others have supposed souls to remain in their multitude after their bodies; but, not to be obliged to suppose an infinity of souls, they have said that the same souls are united to different bodies after a fixed period; and this was the opinion of the Platonists, of which hereafter (Chap. ). Others, avoiding all the aforesaid answers, have maintained that there was no difficulty in the existence of an actual infinity of departed souls: for an actual infinity of things, not related to one another, was only an accidental infinity, in which they saw no difficulty; and this is the position of Avicenna and Algazel. Which of these was the opinion of Aristotle is not expressly set down in his writings, although he does expressly hold the eternity of the world. But the last mentioned opinion is not inconsistent with his principles: for in the Physics, III, v, his argument against an actual infinity is confined to natural bodies, and is not extended to immaterial substances. Clearly however the professors of the Catholic faith can feel no difficulty on this point, as they do not allow the eternity of the world.
. It is impossible for any substance to exist destitute of all activity.
But all activity of the soul ends with the body, as may be shown by simple enumeration. For the faculties of the vegetative soul work through bodily qualities and a bodily instrument; and the term of their activity is the body itself, which is perfected by the soul, is thereby nourished and developed, and comes to furnish the generative products. Also all the activities of the faculties of the sensitive soul are accomplished through bodily organs; and some of them are accompanied by (sensible) bodily change, as in the case of the passions. As for the act of understanding, although it is not an activity exercised through any bodily organ, nevertheless its objects are phantasms, which stand to it as colours to sight: hence as sight cannot see without colours, so the intellectual soul cannot understand without phantasms. The soul also needs, for purposes of understanding, the faculties which prepare the phantasms to become actual terms of intellect, namely, the cogitative faculty and the memory, of which it is certain that they cannot endure without the body, seeing that they work through organs of the body. Hence Aristotle says that “the soul by no means understands without a phantasm,” and that “nothing understands without the passive intellect,” by which name he designates the cogitative faculty, “which is perishable”; and that “we remember nothing” after death of the things that we knew in life. Thus then it is clear that no activity of the soul can continue after death, and therefore neither can its substance continue.
Reply. The assertion that no activity can remain in the soul after its separation from the body, we say, is incorrect: for those activities remain which are not exercised through organs, and such are understanding and will. As for activities exercised through bodily organs, as are the activities of the vegetative and sentient soul, they do not remain. But we must observe that the soul separated from the body does not understand in the same way as when united with the body: for everything acts according as it is. Now though the being of the human soul, while united with the body, is perfect (absolutum), not depending on the body, still the body is a sort of housing (stramentum) to it and subject receptive of it. Hence the proper activity of the soul, which is understanding, while independent of the body in this that it is not exercised through any bodily organ, nevertheless finds in the body its object, which is the phantasm. Hence, so long as the soul is in the body, it cannot understand without a phantasm, nor remember except by the cogitative and reminiscent faculty whereby phantasms are shaped and made available (Chap. ); and therefore this method of understanding and remembering has to be laid aside when the body is laid aside. But the being of the departed soul belongs to it alone without the body: hence its intellectual activity will not be accomplished by regard to such objects as phantasms existing in bodily organs, but it will understand by itself after the manner of those intelligences that subsist totally apart from bodies (Chapp. XCI-CI), from which superior
beings it will be able to receive more abundant influence in order to more perfect understanding.
We may see some indication of this even in living men. When the soul is hampered by preoccupations about its body, it is less disposed to understand higher things. Hence the virtue of temperance, withdrawing the soul from bodily delights, helps especially to make men apt to understand. In sleep again, when men are not using their bodily senses, they have some perception of things to come, impressed upon them by superior beings, and attain to facts that transcend the measure of human reasonings. This is much more the case in states of syncope and ecstasy, as the withdrawal from the bodily senses is there greater. And that is what one might expect, because, as has been pointed out above (Chap. ), the human soul being on the boundary line between corporeal and incorporeal substances, and dwelling as it were on the horizon of eternity and time, it approaches the highest by receding from the lowest. Therefore, when it shall be totally severed from the body, it will be perfectly assimilated to the intelligences that subsist apart, and will receive their influence in more copious streams. Thus then, though the mode of our understanding according to the conditions of the present life is wrecked with the wreck of the body, it will be replaced by another and higher mode of understanding.
But memory, being an act exercised through a bodily organ, as Aristotle shows, cannot remain in the soul after the body is gone; unless memory be taken in another sense for the intellectual hold upon things known before: this intellectual memory of things known in life must remain in the departed soul, since the intellectual impressions are indelibly received in the potential intellect (Chap. ). As regards other activities of the soul, such as love, joy, and the like, we must beware of a double meaning of the terms: sometimes they mean passions, or emotions, which are activities of the sensitive appetite, concupiscible or irascible, and as such they cannot remain in the soul after death, as Aristotle shows: sometimes they mean a simple act of will without passion, as Aristotle says that “The joy of God is one, everlasting, and absolute,” and that “In the contemplation of wisdom there is admirable delight”; and again he distinguishes the love of friendship from the love of passion. But as the will is a power that uses no bodily organ, as neither does the understanding, it is evident that such acts, inasmuch as they are acts of will, may remain in the departed soul.
[lib.2.cap.80.n.1] Rationes probare volentium animam humanam corrumpi corrupto corpore. Videtur autem quibusdam rationibus posse probari animas humanas non posse remanere post corpus. 1. Si enim animæ humanæ multiplicantur secundum multiplicationem corporum, ut supra (c. lxxv) ostensum est, destructis ergo corporibus, non possunt animæ in sua multitudine remanere. Unde oportet alterum duorum sequi: aut quod totaliter anima humana esse desinat; aut quod remaneat una tantum, quod videtur esse secundum opinionem eorum qui ponunt incorruptibile solum id quod est unum in omnibus hominibus, sive hoc sit intellectus agens tantum, ut Alexander dicit, sive cum agente etiam possibilis, ut dicit Averrhoes. 2. Amplius, Ratio formalis est causa diversitatis secundum speciem. Sed, si remanent multæ animæ post corporum corruptionem, oportet eas esse diversas; sicut enim idem est quod est unum secundum substantiam, ita diversa sunt quæ sunt multa secundum substantiam. Non potest autem esse, in animabus remanentibus post corpus, diversitas nisi formalis; non enim sunt compositæ ex materia et forma, ut supra (c. l) probatum est de omni substantia intellectuali. Re- 1 Sed in notula legitur: « M. ss omnes: Arabs. » « Quod si quis post corporis figmentum anilinquitur igitur quod sunt diversæ secundum speciem. Non autem per corruptionem corporis mutantur animæ ad aliam speciem, quia omne quod mutatur de specie in speciem corrumpitur. Relinquitur ergo quod, antequam essent a corporibus separatæ, erant secundum speciem diversæ. Composita autem sortiuntur speciem secundum formam. Ergo et individua hominum erant secundum speciem diversa; quod est inconveniens. — Ergo impossibile videtur quod animæ humanæ multæ remaneant post corpora. 3. Adhuc, Videtur omnino esse impossibile, secundum ponentes æternitatem mundi, ponere quod animæ humanæ in sua multitudine remaneant post mortem corporis. Si enim mundus est ab æterno, motus fuit ab æterno; ergo et generatio est æterna. Sed si generatio est æterna, infiniti homines mortui sunt ante nos. Si ergo animæ mortuorum remanent post mortem in sua multitudine, oportet dicere animas infinitas esse nunc in actu hominum prius mortuorum. Hoc autem est impossibile; nam infinitum actu non potest esse in natura. Relinquitur igitur, si mundus est æternus, quod animæ non remaneant multæ post mortem. 4. Item, quod advenit alicui et discedit ab eo præter sui corruptionem, advenit ei accidentaliter; hæc enim est definitio accidentis. Si ergo anima humana non corrumpitur, corpore abscedente, sequetur quod anima humana accidentaliter corpori uniatur. Ergo homo est ens per accidens, qui est compositus ex anima et corpore. Et sequetur ulterius quod non sit aliqua species humana; non enim ex his quæ conjunguntur per accidens fit species una; nam homo albus non est aliqua species. 5. Amplius, Impossibile est aliquam substantiam esse, cujus non sit aliqua operatio. Sed omnis operatio animæ finitur cum corpore; quod quidem patet per inductionem: nam virtutes animæ nutritivæ operantur per qualitates corporeas et per instrumentum corporeum, et in ipsum corpus, quod perficitur per animam, quod nutritur et augetur, et ex quo deciditur semen ad generationem. Operationes etiam omnes potentiarum quæ pertinent ad animam sensitivam, com-plentur per organa corporalia; et quædam earum complentur cum aliqua transmutatione corporali, sicut quæ dicuntur animæ passiones, ut amor, gaudium et hujusmodi. Intelligere autem, etsi non sit operatio per aliquod organum corporale exercita, tamen objecta ejus sunt phantasmata, quæ ita se habent ad ipsam ut colores ad visum; unde, sicut visus non potest videre sine coloribus, ita anima intellectiva non potest intelligere sine phantasmatibus. Indiget etiam anima, ad intelligendum, virtutibus præparantibus phantasmata ad hoc quod fiant intelligibilia actu, scilicet virtute cogitativa et memorativa, de quibus constat quod, quum sint actus quorumdam organorum corporis per quæ operantur, non possunt remanere post corpus. Unde et Aristoteles dicit, De anima, III, c. vii, quod « nequaquam sine phantasmate intelligit anima, » et quod « nihil intelligit sine intellectu passivo, » (ibid. c. v), quem vocat virtutem cogitativam, quæ est corruptibilis; et propter hoc dicit, De anima, I, c. iv; quod « intelligere hominis corrumpitur, quodam interius corrupto, » scilicet phantasmate vel passivo intellectu; et, De anima, III, c. v, dicitur quod « non reminiscimur, post mortem, eorum quæ scivimus in vita. » Sic igitur patet quod nulla operatio animæ potest remanere post mortem; neque igitur substantia ejus manet, quum nulla substantia possit esse absque operatione.
Caput 82
[lib.2.cap.82.n.1] CHAPTER LXXXII—That the Souls of Dumb Animals are not Immortal
NO activity of the sentient part can have place without a body. But in the souls of dumb animals we find no activity higher than the activities of the sentient part. That animals neither understand nor reason is apparent from this, that all animals of the same species behave alike, as being moved by nature, and not acting on any principle of art: for every swallow makes its nest alike, and every spider its web alike. Therefore there is no activity in the soul of dumb animals that can possibly go on without a body.
2. Every form separated from matter is actually understood. Thus the active intellect makes impressions actually understood, inasmuch as it abstracts them. But if the soul of a dumb animal remains after the body is gone, it will be a form separated from matter. Therefore it will be form actually understood. But “in things separated from matter understanding and understood are the same” (De Anima, III, iv, 13). Therefore the soul of a dumb animal will have understanding, which is impossible.
3. In everything that is apt to arrive at any perfection, there is found a natural craving after that perfection: for good is what all crave after, everything its own good. But in dumb animals there is no craving after perpetuity of being except in the form of perpetuity of the species, inasmuch as they have an instinct of generation, whereby the species is perpetuated, — and the same is found in plants. But they have not that craving consequent upon apprehension: for since the sentient soul apprehends only what is here and now, it cannot possibly apprehend perpetuity of being, and therefore has no physical craving after such perpetuity. Therefore the soul of a dumb animal is incapable of perpetuity of being.
[lib.2.cap.82.n.1] Quod animæ brutorum animalium non sunt immortales. Ex his autem quæ dicta sunt, evidenter ostenditur brutorum animas non esse immortales. 1. Jam enim ostensum est (c. LVII et LXVIII) quod nulla operatio sensitivæ partis esse sine corpore potest. In animbus autem brutorum non est invenire aliquam operationem superiorem operrationibus sensitivæ partis; non enim intelligunt neque ratiocinantur; quod ex hoc apparet, quia omnia animalia ejusdem speciei similiter operantur, quasi a natura motæ non ex arte operantes; omnis enim hirundo similiter facit nidum, et omnis aranea similiter telam. Nulla igitur operatio est animæ brutorum quæ possit sine corpore esse. Quum igitur omnis substantia aliquam operationem habeat, non poterit anima bruti absque corpore esse; ergo, pereunte corpore, perit. 2. Item, Omnis forma separata a materia est intellecta in actu; sic enim intellectus agens facit species intelligibles actu, in quantum abstrahit eas, ut ex supradictis (c. LXXVII) patet. Sed si anima bruti manet, corrupto corpore, erit forma a materia separata. Ergo erit forma intellecta in actu. Sed in separatis a materia idem est intelligens et intellectum, ut Aristoteles dicit, De anima, III, c. iv in fine. Ergo anima bruti, si post corpus manet, erit intellectualis; quod est impossible. 3. Adhuc, In qualibet re quæ potest pertingere ad aliquam perfectionem, invenitur naturalis appetitus illius perfectionnis; bonum enim est quod omnia appetunt, ita tamen quod unumquodque proprium bonum. In brutis autem non invenitur aliquis appetitus ad esse perpetuum, nisi ut perpetuentur secundum speciem, in quantum in eis invenitur appetitus generationnis per quam species perpetuatur (quod quidem invenitur et in plantis et in rebus inanimatis), non autem quantum ad proprium appetitum animalis in quantum est animal, qui est appetitus apprehensionem consequens; nam, quum anima sensitiva non apprehendat nisi hic et nunc, impossibile est quod apprehendat esse perpetuum; neque ergo appetit appetitu animali. Non est igitur anima bruti capax perpetui esse. 4. Amplius, Quum delectationes operationes perficiant, ut patet per Aristotelem, Ethic. X, c. v, ad hoc ordinatur operatio cujuslibet rei sicut in finem in quo sua delectatio figitur. Delectationes autem brutorum animalium omnes referuntur ad conservantiam corporis; non enim delectantur in sonis, odoribus et aspectibus, nisi secundum quod sunt indicativa ciborum vel venereorum, circa quæ est omnis eorum delectatio. Tota igitur operatio eorum versatur ad conservationem esse corporei sicut in finem. Non igitur est eis aliquod esse absque corpore. Huic autem sententiæ doctrina catholicæ fidei concordat; dicitur enim de animaibus brutis: Anima carnis in sanguine est. Levit. xvII, 14, quasi dicatur: Ex sanguinis permanentia esse illius dependet. — Et in libro De ecclesiasticis dogmatibus: « Solum hominem credimus « habere animam substantivam (id est « per se vitalem); brutorum vero animas « cum corporibus interire. » Gennad. Massil. c. xvi, et xvII, in tomo VIII, opp. S. Aug. Aristoteles etiam dicit De anima, II, c. 11, quod intellectiva pars anima se separatur ab aliis sicut incorruptibile a corruptibili. Per hoc autem excluditur positio Platonis, qui posuit etiam brutorum animas esse immortales. Videtur tamen posse probari brutorum animas esse immortales. 1. Cujus enim est aliqua operatio per se separatim et ipsum est per se subsistens. Sed animæ sensitivæ in brutis est aliqua operatio per se subsistens in qua non communicat corpus, scilicet, se movere; natura enim movens componi- A, B, C, D, omittunt: « Operationibus. » A, B, Textus Gennadii non habet: « Id est per se vitalem. » — Et sic habet pro sequentibus: « Animalium vero animæ cum carnis morte finiuntur. » A, B, C, D, E, F, omittunt: « Se. » tur ex duobus, quorum unum est movens et alterum est motum; unde, quum corpus sit motum, relinquitur quod anima sola sit movens. Ergo est per se subsistens. Non igitur potest per accidens corrumpi, corpore corrupto; illa enim solum per accideus corrumpuntur quæ per se non habent esse; per se autem non potest corrumpi, quum neque contrarium habet, neque sit ex contrariis composita. Relinquitur igitur quod sit omnino incorruptibilis. 2. Adhuc etiam videbatur redire Platonis ratio, qua probabat omnem animam esse immortalem, quia scilicet anima est movens seipsam. Omne autem movens seipsum oportet esse immortale, corpus enim non moritur nisi abscedente eo a quo movebatur; idem autem a seipso non potest discedere; unde sequitur (secundum ipsum) quod movens seipsum non possit mori. Et sic relinquebatur quod anima omnis motiva esset immortalis, etiam brutorum. — Ideo autem hanc rationem in idem redire diximus cum præmissa, quia, quum (secundum Platonis positionem) nihil moveat nisi motum, id quod est seipsum movens est per seipsum motivum, et sic habet aliquam operationem per se. Non solum autem in movendo, sed etiam in sentiendo, ponebat Plato animam sensitivam propriam operationem habere; dicebat enim quod sentire est motus quidam ipsius animæ sentientis, et ipsa sic mota movebat corpus ad sentiendum; unde, diffiniens sensum, dicebat quod est motus animæ per corpus. Hæc autem quæ dicta sunt patet esse falsa. 1. Non enim sentire est movere, sed magis moveri; nam ex potentia sentiente fit animal actu sentiens per sensibilia a quibus sensus immutantur. Non autem potest dici similiter sensum pati a sensibilii sicut patitur intellectus ab intelligibili, ut sic sentire possit esse operatio animæ absque corporeo instrumento, sicut est intelligere; nam intellectus apprehendit res in abstractione a materia et materialibus conditionibus quæ sunt individuationis principia, non autem sensus; quod exinde apparet quia sensus est particularium, intellectus vero universalium. Unde patet quod sensus patiuntur a rebus secundum quod sunt in materia, non autem intellectus, sed secundum quod sunt abstractæ. Passio igitur intellectus est absque materia corporali, non autem passio sensus. 2. Adhuc, Diversi sensus sunt perceptivi diversorum sensibilium, sicut visus colorum, auditus sonorum. Hæc autem diversitas manifeste ex dispositione organorum diversa contingit; nam organum visus oportet esse in potentia ad omnes colores, organum auditus ad omnes sonos. Si autem hæc receptio fieret absque organo corporali, eadem potentia esset omnium sensibilium susceptiva; nam virtus immaterialis se habet æqualiter, quantum de se est, ad omnes hujusmodi qualitates; unde intellectus, qui non utitur organo corporali, omnia sensibilia cognoscit. Sentire igitur non fit absque organo corporeo. 3. Præterea, Sensus corrumpitur ab excellentia sensibilium, non autem intellectus; quia qui intelligit altiora intelligibilium non minus poterit alia speculari, sed magis. Alterius igitur generis est passio sensus a sensibili, et intellectus ab intelligibili; intellectus quidem passio fit absque organo corporali; passio vero sensus cum organo corporali, cujus harmonia solvitur per sensibilium excellentiam. Quod autem Plato dixit, animam esse moventem seipsam, certum esse videtur ex hoc quod erga corpora apparet. Nullum enim corpus videtur movere, nisi sit motum; unde Plato ponebat omne movens moveri; et, quia non itur in infinitum ut unumquodque motum ab alio moveatur, ponebat primum movens in unoquoque ordine movere seipsum. Et ex hoc sequebatur animam, quæ est primum movens in motibus animalium, esse aliquid movens seipsum. Hoc autem patet esse falsum dupliciter. — Primo quidem, quia probatum est (lib. I, c. xvii) quod omne quod movetur per se, est corpus; unde, quum anima non sit corpus, imposibile est ipsam moveri nisi per accidens. — Secundo, quia, quum movens in quantum hujusmodi sit actu, motum autem in quantum hujusmodi sit in potentia, nihil autem potest esse secundum idem actu et potentia, imposibile erit quod idem secundum idem sit movens et motum; sed oportet, si aliquid dicitur seipsum movens, quod una pars ejus sit movens et alia pars sit mota; et hoc modo dicitur animal movere seipsum, quia anima est movens et corpus est motum. — Sed quia Plato animam non ponebat esse corpus, licet uteretur nomine motus qui proprie corporum est, non tamen hoc de motu proprie dicto intelligebat, sed accipiebat motum communius pro qualibet operatione, prout etiam Aristoteles dicit, De anima, III, c. vii init., quod sentire et intelligere sunt motus quidam; sic autem motus non est actus exsistentis in potentia, sed actus perfecti. Unde, quum dicebat animam movere seipsam, intendebat per hoc dicere quod ipsa operatur absque adminiculo corporis, e contrario ei quod accidit in aliis formis, quæ non agunt absque materia; non enim calor calefacit separatim, sed calidum; ex quo volebat concludere omnem animam motivam esse immortalem; nam quod per se habet operationem, et per se existentiam habere potest. Sed jam ostensum est quod operatio animæ brutalis, quæ est sentire, non potest esse sine corpore. Multo autem magis hoc apparet in operatione ejus, quod est appetere; nam omnia quæ ad appetitum sensitivæ partis pertinent, manifeste cum transmutatione aliqua corporis fiunt; unde et passiones animæ dicuntur. Ex quibus sequitur quod nec ipsum movere sit operatio animæ sensitivæ absque organo. Non enim movet anima brutalis nisi per sensum et appetitum; nam virtus quæ dicitur exsequens motum facit membra esse obedientia imperio appetitus; unde magis sunt virtutes perficientes corpus ad moveri quam virtutes moventes. — Sic igitur patet quod nulla operatio animæ brutalis potest esse absque corpore; ex quo de necessitate concludi potest quod anima brutalis cum corpore intereat.
Caput 83
[lib.2.cap.83.n.1] CHAPTER LXXXIII, LXXXIV—Apparent Arguments to show that the Human Soul does not begin with the Body, but has been from Eternity, with Replies to the same
ARG. 1. (A.) What will never cease to be, has a power of being always. But of that which has a power of being always it is never true to say that it is not: for a thing continues in being so far as its power of being extends. What therefore will never cease to be, will never either begin to be.
Reply. The power of a thing does not extend to the past, but to the present or future: hence with regard to past events possibility has no place. Therefore from the fact of the soul having a power of being always it does not follow that the soul always has been, but that it always will be. — Besides, that to which power extends does not follow until the power is presupposed. It cannot therefore be concluded that the soul is always except for the time that comes after it has received the power.
Arg. 2. Truth of the intellectual order is imperishable, eternal, necessary. Now from the imperishableness of intellectual truth the being of the soul is shown to be imperishable. In like manner from the eternity of that truth there may be proved the eternity of the soul.
Reply. The eternity of understood truth may be regarded in two ways, — in point of the object which is understood, and in point of the mind whereby it is understood. From the eternity of understood truth in point of the object, there will follow the eternity of the thing, but not the eternity of the thinker. From the eternity of understood truth in point of the understanding mind, the eternity of that thinking soul will follow. But understood truth is eternal, not in the latter but in the former way. As we have seen, the intellectual impressions, whereby our soul understands truth, come to us fresh from the phantasms through the medium of the active intellect. Hence the conclusion is, not that our soul is eternal, but that those understood truths are founded upon something which is eternal. In fact they are founded upon the First Truth, the universal Cause comprehensive of all truth. To this truth our soul stands related, not as the recipient subject to the form which it receives, but as a thing to its proper end: for truth is the good of the understanding and the end thereof. Now we can gather an argument of the duration of a thing from its end, as we can argue the beginning of a thing from its efficient cause: for what is ordained to an everlasting end must be capable of perpetual duration. Hence the immortality of the soul may be argued from the eternity of intellectual truth, but not the eternity of the soul.
Arg. 3. That is not perfect, to which many of its principal parts are wanting. If therefore there daily begin to be as many human souls as there are men born, it is clear that many of its principal parts are daily being added to the universe, and consequently that very many are still wanting to it. It follows that the universe is imperfect, which is impossible.
Reply. The perfection of the universe goes by species, not by individuals; and human souls do not differ in species, but only in number (Chap. ).
(B.) Some professing the Catholic faith, but imbued with Platonic doctrines, have taken a middle course [between Platonists, who held that individual souls were from eternity, now united with bodies, now released by turns; and Alexander, Averroes, — and possibly Aristotle himself, — deniers of personal immortality]. These men, seeing that according to the Catholic faith nothing is eternal but God, have supposed human souls not to be eternal, but to have been created with the world, or rather before the visible world, and to be united with bodies recurrently as required. Origen was the first professor of the Christian faith to take up this position, and he has since had many followers. The position seems assailable on these grounds.
1. The soul is united with the body as the form and actualising principle thereof. Now though actuality is naturally prior to potentiality, yet, in the same subject, it is posterior to it in time: for a thing moves from potentiality to actuality. Therefore the seed, which is potentially alive, was before the soul, which is the actuality of life.
2. It is natural to every form to be united to its own proper matter: otherwise the compound of matter and form would be something unnatural. Now that which belongs to a thing according to its nature is assigned to it before that which belongs to it against its nature: for what belongs to a thing against its nature attaches to it incidentally, but what belongs to it according to its nature attaches to it ordinarily; and the incidental is always posterior to the ordinary. It belongs to the soul therefore to be united to the body before being apart from the body.
3. Every part, separated from its whole, is imperfect. But the soul, being the form (Chap. ), is a part of the human species. Therefore, existing by itself, apart from the body, it is imperfect. But the perfect is before the imperfect in the order of natural things.
(C.) If souls were created without bodies, the question arises how they came to be united with bodies. It must have been either violently or naturally. If violently, the union of the soul with the body is unnatural, and man is an unnatural compound of soul and body, which cannot be true. But if souls are naturally united with bodies, then they were created with a physical tendency (appetitus naturalis) to such union. Now a physical tendency works itself out at once, unless something comes in the way. Souls then should have been united with bodies from the instant of their creation except for some intervening obstacle. But any obstacle intervening to arrest a physical tendency, or natural craving, does violence to the same. Therefore it would have been by violence that souls were for a period separated from their bodies, which is an awkward conclusion.
(D.) But if it be said that both states alike are natural to the soul, as well the state of union with the body as the state of separation, according to difference
of times, this appears to be impossible, — because points of natural variation are accidents to the subject in which they occur, as age and youth: if then union with body and separation from a body are natural variations to the soul, the union of the soul with the body will be an accident; and man, the result of that union, will not be an ordinary, regular entity (ens per se), but a casual, incidental being (ens per accidens).
(E.) But if it is said that souls are united with bodies neither violently nor naturally, but of their own spontaneous will, that cannot be. For none is willing to come to a worse state except under deception. But the soul is in a higher state away from the body, especially according to the Platonists, who say that by union with the body the soul suffers forgetfulness of what it knew before, and is hindered from the contemplation of pure truth. At that rate it has no willingness to be united with a body except for some deceit practised upon it. Threfore, supposing it to have pre-existed before the body, it would not be united therewith of its own accord.
(F.) But if as an alternative it is said that the soul is united with the body neither by nature, nor by its own will, but by a divine ordinance, this again does not appear a suitable arrangement, on the supposition that souls were created before bodies. For God has established everything according to the proper mode of its nature: hence it is said: God saw all things that he had made, and they were very good (Gen. i, 31). If then He created souls apart from bodies, we must say that this mode of being is better suited to their nature. But it is not proper for an ordinance of divine goodness to reduce things to a lower state, but rather to rise them to a higher. At that rate the union of soul with body could not be the result of a divine ordinance.
(G.) This consideration moved Origen to suppose that when souls, created from the beginning of time, came by divine ordinance to be united with bodies, it was for their punishment. He supposed that they had sinned before they came into bodies, and that according to the amount of their guilt they were united with bodies of various degrees of nobility, shut up in them as in prisons. But this supposition cannot stand for reasons alleged above (Chap. ).
[lib.2.cap.83.n.1] Quod anima humana incipiat cum corpore. Sed quia eædem res inveniuntur et esse incipere et finem essendi habere, potest alicui videri quod, ex quo anima humana finem essendi non habet, nec principium essendi habuerit, sed fuerit semper; quod quidem videtur his rationibus posse probari: et aliter. æterno fuisse, sive hoc sit intellectus agens tantum, ut posuit Alexander, sive cum eo etiam intellectus possibilis, ut posuit Averrhoes. Hoc etiam videntur sonare et Aristotelis verba; nam, de intellectu loquens, dicit, De anima, III, c. v, ipsum non solum incorruptibilem, sed etiam perpetuum esse. Quidam vero catholicam fidem profitentes, Platonicorum doctrinis imbuti, viam medium tenuerunt. Quia enim, secundum fidem catholicam, nihil est æternum præter Deum, humanas quidem animas æternas non posuerunt, sed eas cum mundo sive potius ante mundum visibilem creatas esse, et tamen eas de novo corporibus alligari. Quam quidem positionem primus inter christianæ fidei professores Origenes posuisse invenitur, et post eum plures ipsum sequentes; quæ quidem opinio usque hodie apud hæreticos manet, quorum Manichæi eas etiam æternas asserunt cum Platone, et eas de corpore ad corpus transire. Sed de facili ostendi potest præmissas positiones non esse veritate 1 subnixas. Quod enim non sit unus omnium intellectus possibilis neque agens, jam supra (c. LXXI:I et LXXVI) est ostensum. Unde restat contra istas positiones procedere quæ dicunt plures animas esse hominum, et tamen ponunt eas ante corpora exstitisse, sive ab æterno sive a mundi constitutione; quod quidem videur inconveniens his rationibus: 1. Ostensum est enim supra (c. LVI et LVII) animam uniri corpori ut formam et actum ipsius. Actus autem, licet sit naturaliter prior potentia, tamen, in eodem, tempore est posterior; movetur enim aliquid de potentia in actum. Prius igitur fuit semen, quod quidem est potentia vivum, quam esset anima, quae est actus vitæ. 2. Adhuc, Unicuique formæ naturale est propriæ materiae uniri; alioquin constitutum ex forma et materia esset aliquid præter naturam. Prius autem attribuitur unicuique quod convenit ei secundum naturam quam quod convenit ei præter naturam; quod enim convenit alicui præter naturam, inest ei per accidens; quod autem convenit ei secundum naturam, inest ei per se; quod autem per accidens est, semper posterius est eo quod est per se. Animæ igitur prius convenit esse unitam corpori quam esse a corpore separatam. Non est igitur creata ante corpus cui unitur. 3. Amplius, Omnis pars a suo toto separata est imperfecta. Anima autem, cum sit forma, ut probatum est (c. xLVII), est pars speciei humanæ. Igitur, exsistens per se absque corpore, est imperfecta. Perfectum autem est prius imperfecto, in rerum naturalium ordine. Non igitur competit naturæ ordini quod anima fuerit prius creata corpore exuta, quam corpori unita. 4. Amplius, Si animæ sunt creatæ absque corporibus, quærendum est quomodo sint corporibus unitæ. Aut enim hoc fuit violenter, aut per naturam. — Si autem violenter (omne autem violentum est contra naturam), unio igitur animæ ad corpus est præter naturam; homo igitur, qui ex utroque componitur, est quid innaturale; quod patet esse falsum. Præterea, substantiae intellectuales altioris ordinis sunt quam corpora cælestia; in corporibus autem cælestibus, nihil inventur violentum neque contra naturam; multo igitur minus in substantiis intellectualibus. — Si autem naturaliter animæ sunt corporibus unitæ, naturaliter igitur animæ in sui creatione appetierunt corporibus uniri. Appetitus autem naturalis statim prodit in actum, nisi sit aliquid impediens, sicut patet in motu gravium et levium; natura enim semper uno modo operatur. Statim ergo a principio suæ creationis, fuissent corporibus unitæ, nisi esset aliquid impediens. Sed omne impediens exsecutionem naturalis appetitus, est violentiam inferens. Per violentiam igitur fuit quod animæ essent aliquo tempore a corporibus separatæ; quod est inconveniens, tum quia in illis substantiis non potest esse aliquid violentum, ut supra ostensum est, tum quia violentum et quod est contra naturam, quum sit per accidens, non potest esse prius eo quod est secundum naturam, neque totam speciem consequens. Præterea, quum unumquodque naturaliter appetat suam perfectionem, materiae est appetere formam, et non e converso. Anima autem comparatur ad corpus sicut forma ad materiam, ut supra (c. LVII, LXV et LXVIII, ostensum est. Non igitur unio 1 animæ ad corpus fit per appetitum animæ, sed magis per appetitum corporis. Si autem dicatur quod utrumque est animæ naturale, scilicet uniri corpori et esse a corpore separatam pro diversis temporibus, hoc videtur esse impossibile: 1. Quia ea quæ naturaliter variantur circa subjectum sunt accidentia, sicut juventus et senectus. Si igitur uniri corpori et separari a corpore naturaliter circa animam varietur, erit accidens animæ corpori uniri; et sic ex hac unione homo constitutus non erit ens per se, sed per accidens. 2. Præterea, omne illud cui accidit alteritas aliqua secundum diversitatem temporum, est subjectum cælesti motui, quem sequitur totus temporis cursus. Substantiæ autem intellectuales et incorporeæ, inter quas sunt animæ separatæ, excedunt totum ordinem corporis; unde non possunt esse subjectæ cælestibus motibus. Impossibile est igitur quod secundum diversa tempora naturaliter uniantur quando et separentur quando, vel naturaliter nunc hoc nunc illud appetant. Si autem dicatur quod neque per violentiam neque per naturam corporibus uniuntur, sed spontanea voluntate, hoc esse non potest. 1. Nullus enim vult in statum pejorem venire nisi deceptus. Anima autem separata est altioris status quam corpori unita, et præcipue secundum Platonicos, qui dicunt quod ex unione corporis pati-tur oblivionem eorum quæ prius scivit, et retardatur a contemplatione puræ veritatis. Non igitur volens corpori unitur nisi decepta. Deceptionis autem nulla causa in ea potest exsistere, quum ponatur secundum eos scientiam omnium habere. Nec potest dici quod judicium ex universali causa procedens in particulari eligibili subvertatur propter passiones, sicut accidit incontinentibus; quia passiones hujusmodi non sunt absque corporali transmutatione; unde non possunt esse in anima separata. Relinquitur igitur quod anima, si fuisset ante corpus, non uniretur corpori propria voluntate. 2° Præterea, Omnis effectus procedens ex concursu duarum voluntatum ad invicem non ordinatarum est effectus casualis; sicut patet quum aliquis, intendens emere, obviat in foro creditori illuc non ex condito venienti. Voluntas autem patris generantis, ex qua dependet generatio corporis, non habet ordinem cum voluntate animæ separatæ uniri volentis. Quum igitur asbque utraque voluntate unio corporis et animæ fieri non possit, sequitur quod sit casualis; et ita generatis hominis non est a natura, sed a casu; quod patet esse falsum, quum sit ut in pluribus. Si autem rursus dicatur quod nec ex natura nec ex propria voluntate anima corpori unitur, sed ex divina ordinatione, hoc etiam non videtur conveniens, si animæ ante corpora fuerunt creatæ. 1. Unumquodque enim Deus instituit secundum convenientem modum suæ naturæ; unde et de singulis creatis dicitur: Vidit Deus quod esset bonum, Gen. 1, 40 et seqq. et simul de omnibus: Viditque cuncta quæ fecerat, et erant valde bona, ibid. 1, 34. Si igitur animas creavit a corporibus separatas, oportet dicere quod hic modus essendi sit convenientior naturæ earum. Non est autem ad ordinationem divinæ bonitatis pertinens res ad inferiorem statum reducere, sed magis ad meliorem promovere. Non igitur ex divina ordinatione factum fuisset quod anima corpori uniretur. 2. Præterea, Non pertinet ad ordinem divinæ sapientiae, cum superiorum detrimento, ea quæ sunt infima nobilitare. Infima autem in rerum ordine sunt corpora generabilia et corruptibilia. Non igitur fuisset conveniens ordini divinæ sapientiae, ad nobilitandum humana corpora, animas præexistentes eis unire, quum hoc sine detrimento earum esse non possit, ut ex dictis patet. Hoc autem Origenes considerans, quum poneret animas humanas a principio fuisse creatas, dixit quod ordinatione divina animæ corporibus sunt unitæ, sed in earum pœnam; nam ante corpora eas peccasse existimavit, et pro quantitate peccati corporibus nobilioribus vel minus nobilibus eas unitas esse, quasi quibusdam carceribus inclusas. Sed hæc positio stare non potest. 1. Pœna enim bono naturæ adversatur, et ex hoc dicitur mala. Si igitur unio animæ et corporis est quoddam pœnale, non est bonum naturæ; quod est impossibile; est enim intentum per naturam, nam ad hoc naturalis generatio terminatur. Et iterum sequeretur quod esse hominem non esset bonum secundum naturam, quum tamen dicatur post hominis creationem: Viditque Deus cuncta quæ fecerat, et erant valde bona, Gen. 1, 34. 2. Præterea, Ex malo non provenit bonum nisi per accidens. Si igitur, propter peccatum animæ separatæ, hoc constitutum est quod anima corpori uniatur, quum hoc sit quoddam bonum, per accidens erit. Casuale igitur fuit quod homo fieret; quod derogat divinæ Sapientiae, de qua dicitur: Omnia in mensura, et numero, et pondere disposuisti, Sap. xi, 24. 3. Adhuc autem et hoc repugnat Apostolicæ doctrinæ manifeste; dicitur enim de Jacob et Esau quod, quum nondum nati fuissent, aut aliquid boni egissent, aut mali..., dictum est quia major serviet minori, Rom. ix, 11, 12 et 13. Non igitur, antequam hoc verbum diceretur, aliquid eorum animæ peccaverant, quum tamen hoc post eorum conceptionem dictum fuerit, ut patet, Genes. xxv, 23. Sunt autem supra (c. xliv), quum de distinctione rerum ageretur, plura contra Origenis positionem inducta, quæ etiam hic possent assumi; et ideo, eis prætermissis, ad alia transeundum est. 4. Item, Necesse est dicere quod anima humana aut indigeat sensibus, aut non. Videtur autem manifeste, per id quod experimur, quod indigeat sensibus; quia qui caret sensu aliquo non habet scientiam de sensibilibus quæ cognoscuntur per sensum illum; sicut cæcus natus nullam scientiam habet nec aliquid intelligit de coloribus. Et præterea, si non sunt necessarii humanæ animæ sensus ad intelligendum, non inveniretur in homine aliquis ordo sensitivæ et intellectivæ cognitionis; cujus contrarium experimur; nam ex sensibus fiunt in nobis memoriae ex quibus experimenta de rebus accipimus, per quæ ad comprehendendum universalia scientiarum et artium principia pervenimus. Si ergo anima humana ad intelligendum sensibus indiget (natura autem nulli deficit in necessariis ad propriam operationem explendam, sicut animalibus habentibus animam sensitivam et motivam dat convenientia organa sensus et motus), non fuisset anima humana sine necessariis adminiculis sensuum instituta. Sensus autem non operantur sine organis corporeis, ut ex dictis (c. lvii et lxxviii) patet. Non igitur fuit instituta anima sine corporeis organis. Si autem anima humana non indiget sensibus ad intelligendum et propter hoc dicitur absque corpore fuisse creata,oportet dici quod, antequam corpori uniretur, omnium scientiarum veritates intelligebat per seipsam; quod Platonici concesserunt, dicentes ideas, quæ sunt formæ rerum intelligibiles separatæ, secundum Platonis sententiam, causam scientiæ esse; unde anima separata, quum nullum impedimentum adesset, plenarie omnium scientiarum cognitionem accipiebat. Oportet igitur dicere quod, dum corpori unitur, quum inveniatur ignorans, oblivionem præhabitæ scientiæ patiatur; quod etiam Platonici concesserunt, hujus rei signum esse dicentes quod quilibet, quantumcumque ignoret, ordinate interrogatus de his quæ in scientiis traduntur, veritatem respondet; sicut quum aliquis jam oblito aliquorum quæ prius scivit seriatim proponit ea quæ prius fuerat oblitus, in eorum memoriam ipsum reducit; ex quo etiam sequebatur quod addiscere non esset aliud quam reminisci. Sic igitur ex hac positione de necessitate conclusitur quod unio corporis et animæ præstet intelligentiæ animæ impedimentum. Nulli autem rei natura adjungit aliquid per quod sua operatio impediatur, sed magis ea per quæ fiat convenientior. Non igitur erit unio corporis et animæ naturalis, et sic homo non erit res naturalis, nec ejus generatio naturalis; quæ patent esse falsa. 5. Præterea, Ultimus finis rei cujuslibet est id ad quod res pervenire nititur per suas operationes. Sed per omnes proprias ordinatas operationes et rectas homo pervenire nititur in veritatis contemplationem; nam operationes virtutum activarum sunt quædam præparationes et dispositiones ad virtutes contemplativas. Finis igitur hominis est parvenire ad veritatis contemplationem. Propter hoc igitur anima est unita corpori; quod est esse hominem. Non igitur, per hoc quod unitur corpori, scientiam habitam perdit; sed magis ei unitur ut scientiam acquirat. 6. Item, Si aliquis, scientiarumignarus, de his quæ ad scientias pertinent interrogatur, non respondebit veritatem nisi de universalibus principiis, quæ nullus ignorat, sed sunt ab omnibus eodem modo et naturaliter cognita; postmodum autem ordinate interrogatus, respondebit veritatem de his quæ sunt propinqua principiis, habito respectu ad principia; et sic deinceps, quousque veritatem primorum principiorum ad ea de quibus interrogatur applicare potest. Ex hoc igitur manifeste apparet quod, per principia prima, in eo qui interrogatur causatur cognitio de novo. Non igitur prius habitæ notitiæ reminiscitur. 7. Præterea, Si ita esset animæ naturalis cognitio conclusionum sicut principiorum, eadem esset scientia apud omnes de conclusionibus sicut de principiis; quia quæ sunt naturalia sunt eadem apud omnes. Non est autem eadem scientia apud omnes de conclusionibus, sed solum de principiis. Patet igitur quod cognitio principiorum est nobis naturalis, non autem conclusionum. Quod autem non est naturale nobis acquirimus per id quod est naturale, sicut etiam in exterioribus per manus instituimus omnia artificialia. Non ergo conclusionum scientia est in nobis nisi ex principiis acquisita. 8. Adhuc, Quum natura semper ordinetur ad unum, unius virtutis oportebit esse naturaliter unum objectum, sicut visus colorem et auditus sonum. Intellectus igitur quum sit una vis, est ejus unum naturale objectum, cujus per se et naturaliter cognitionem habet. Hoc autem oportet esse id sub quo comprehenduntur omnia ab intellectu cognita, sicut sub colore comprehenduntur omnes colores, qui sunt per se visibles; quod non est aliud quam ens. Naturaliter igitur intellectus notiter cognoscit ens et ea quæ sunt per se entis in quantum hujusmodi; in qua cognitione fundatur primorum principiorum notitia, ut non esse simul affirmare et negare, et alia hujusmodi. Hæc igitur sola principia intellectus notter naturaliter cognoscit, conclusiones autem per ipsa, sicut per colorem cognoscit visus omnia sensibilia, tam communia quam sensibilia per accidens. 9. Præterea, Id quod per sensum in nobis acquiritur non infuit animæ ante corpus. Sed ipsorum principiorum cognitio in nobis ex sensibus causatur; nisi enim aliquod totum sensu percepissemus, non possemus intelligere quod totum esset majus parte, sicut nec cæcus natus aliquid percipit de coloribus. Ergo nec ipsorum principiorum cognitio affuit animæ ante corpus; multo igitur minus aliorum. Non igitur firma est Platonis ratio, quod anima fuit antequam uniretur corpori. 10. Item, Si omnes animæ præxstiterunt corporibus quibus uniuntur, consequens videtur quod eadem anima, secundum vicissitudinem temporum, diversis corporibus uniatur; quod quidem aperte consequitur ponentes æternitatem mundi. Si enim generatio hominum est sempiterna, oportet infinita corpora humana generari et corrumpi, secundum totum temporis decursum. Aut ergo oportebit dicere animas præxstitisse actu infinitas, si singulæ animæ singulis corporibus uniuntur; aut oportebit dicere, si animæ sunt finitæ, quod eædem unian-tur nunc his nunc illis corporibus. — Idem autem videtur sequi, si ponantur animæ præfuisse corporibus, quum et hæc generatio non sit æterna. Etsi enim ponatur humana generatio non semper fuisse, tamen nulli dubium est quin, secundum naturam, in infinitum possit durare; sic enim est unusquisque naturaliter institutus, nisi per accidens impedia-tur, ut, sicut est ab alio generatus, ita possit alium generare. Hoc autem est etiam impossibile, si, animabus exsisten-tibus finitis, una pluribus corporibus uniri non possit; unde et plures ponentium animas ante corpora ponunt transitum animæ de corpore in corpus. Hoc autem est impossibile. Non igitur animæ ante corpora præxstiterunt. Quod autem sit impossibile unam animam diversis corporibus uniri, sic patet. 1. Animæ enim humanæ non differunt specie ab invicem, sed numero solo; alio-quin et homines specie differrent. Differentia autem secundum numerum inest secundum principia materialia. Oportet igitur diversitatem animarum humanarum secundum aliquid materiale sumi; non autem ita quod ipsius animæ sit materia pars; ostensum est enim supra (c. LIX et L) quod est substantia intellectualis, et quod nulla talis substantia materiam habet. Relinquitur ergo quod, secundum ordinem ad diversas materias quibus animæ uniuntur, diversitas et pluralitas animarum sumatur eo modo 1 2 3 5 6 quo supra dictum est. Si igitur sunt diversa corpora necesse est quod habeant diversas animas sibi unitas; non igitur una pluribus unitur. 2. Adhuc, Ostensum est supra (c. LVI et LVII) animam uniri corpori ut formam. Formas autem oportet esse propriis materiis proportionatas, quum se habeant ad invicem sicut potentia et actus; proprius autem actus propriæ potentiæ respondet. Non ergo una anima pluribus corporibus unitur. 3. Amplius, Virtutem motoris oportet esse suo mobili proportionatam; non enim quæcumque virtus movet quodcumque mobile. Anima autem etsi non sit forma corporis, non tamen potest dici quod non sit motor ipsius; animatum autem ab inanimato distinguimus sensu et motu. Oportet igitur secundum diversitatem corporum esse diversitatem animarum. 4. Item, In his quæ generantur et corrumpuntur, impossibile est per generationem reiterari idem numero; quum enim generatio et corruptio sit motus in substantiam in his quæ generantur et corrumpuntur, non manet substantia eadem, sicut manet in his quæ secundum locum moventur. Sed si una anima diversis corporibus generatis unitur successive, redibit idem numero homo per generationem; quod secundum Platonem de necessitate sequitur, qui dixit hominem esse animam corpore indutam. Sequitur etiam et in aliis quibuscumque; quia, quum unitas rei sequatur formam sicut et esse, oportet quod illa sint idem numero quorum est forma numero una. Non igitur est possibile unam animam diversis corporibus uniri; ex quo etiam sequitur quod nec animæ fuerunt ante corpora. Huic autem veritati catholicæ fidei sententia concordat; dicitur enim: Qui finxit singillatim corda corum, Psalm. xxxii, 15, quia scilicet unicuique seorsum proprie Deus animam fecit; non autem simul omnes creavit, nec unam diversis corporibus adjunxit. Hinc etiam in libro De ecclesiasticis dogmatibus, cap. xiv. — Inter Op. Aug. Ed. L. Vivès, t. XXVII, p. 726, col. 11, dicitur: « Animas hominum (credimus) non esse « ab initio inter cæteras intellectuales naturales, nec simul creatas, sicut Origenes fingit. »
Caput 84
[lib.2.cap.84.n.1] CHAPTER LXXXIII, LXXXIV—Apparent Arguments to show that the Human Soul does not begin with the Body, but has been from Eternity, with Replies to the same
ARG. 1. (A.) What will never cease to be, has a power of being always. But of that which has a power of being always it is never true to say that it is not: for a thing continues in being so far as its power of being extends. What therefore will never cease to be, will never either begin to be.
Reply. The power of a thing does not extend to the past, but to the present or future: hence with regard to past events possibility has no place. Therefore from the fact of the soul having a power of being always it does not follow that the soul always has been, but that it always will be. — Besides, that to which power extends does not follow until the power is presupposed. It cannot therefore be concluded that the soul is always except for the time that comes after it has received the power.
Arg. 2. Truth of the intellectual order is imperishable, eternal, necessary. Now from the imperishableness of intellectual truth the being of the soul is shown to be imperishable. In like manner from the eternity of that truth there may be proved the eternity of the soul.
Reply. The eternity of understood truth may be regarded in two ways, — in point of the object which is understood, and in point of the mind whereby it is understood. From the eternity of understood truth in point of the object, there will follow the eternity of the thing, but not the eternity of the thinker. From the eternity of understood truth in point of the understanding mind, the eternity of that thinking soul will follow. But understood truth is eternal, not in the latter but in the former way. As we have seen, the intellectual impressions, whereby our soul understands truth, come to us fresh from the phantasms through the medium of the active intellect. Hence the conclusion is, not that our soul is eternal, but that those understood truths are founded upon something which is eternal. In fact they are founded upon the First Truth, the universal Cause comprehensive of all truth. To this truth our soul stands related, not as the recipient subject to the form which it receives, but as a thing to its proper end: for truth is the good of the understanding and the end thereof. Now we can gather an argument of the duration of a thing from its end, as we can argue the beginning of a thing from its efficient cause: for what is ordained to an everlasting end must be capable of perpetual duration. Hence the immortality of the soul may be argued from the eternity of intellectual truth, but not the eternity of the soul.
Arg. 3. That is not perfect, to which many of its principal parts are wanting. If therefore there daily begin to be as many human souls as there are men born, it is clear that many of its principal parts are daily being added to the universe, and consequently that very many are still wanting to it. It follows that the universe is imperfect, which is impossible.
Reply. The perfection of the universe goes by species, not by individuals; and human souls do not differ in species, but only in number (Chap. ).
(B.) Some professing the Catholic faith, but imbued with Platonic doctrines, have taken a middle course [between Platonists, who held that individual souls were from eternity, now united with bodies, now released by turns; and Alexander, Averroes, — and possibly Aristotle himself, — deniers of personal immortality]. These men, seeing that according to the Catholic faith nothing is eternal but God, have supposed human souls not to be eternal, but to have been created with the world, or rather before the visible world, and to be united with bodies recurrently as required. Origen was the first professor of the Christian faith to take up this position, and he has since had many followers. The position seems assailable on these grounds.
1. The soul is united with the body as the form and actualising principle thereof. Now though actuality is naturally prior to potentiality, yet, in the same subject, it is posterior to it in time: for a thing moves from potentiality to actuality. Therefore the seed, which is potentially alive, was before the soul, which is the actuality of life.
2. It is natural to every form to be united to its own proper matter: otherwise the compound of matter and form would be something unnatural. Now that which belongs to a thing according to its nature is assigned to it before that which belongs to it against its nature: for what belongs to a thing against its nature attaches to it incidentally, but what belongs to it according to its nature attaches to it ordinarily; and the incidental is always posterior to the ordinary. It belongs to the soul therefore to be united to the body before being apart from the body.
3. Every part, separated from its whole, is imperfect. But the soul, being the form (Chap. ), is a part of the human species. Therefore, existing by itself, apart from the body, it is imperfect. But the perfect is before the imperfect in the order of natural things.
(C.) If souls were created without bodies, the question arises how they came to be united with bodies. It must have been either violently or naturally. If violently, the union of the soul with the body is unnatural, and man is an unnatural compound of soul and body, which cannot be true. But if souls are naturally united with bodies, then they were created with a physical tendency (appetitus naturalis) to such union. Now a physical tendency works itself out at once, unless something comes in the way. Souls then should have been united with bodies from the instant of their creation except for some intervening obstacle. But any obstacle intervening to arrest a physical tendency, or natural craving, does violence to the same. Therefore it would have been by violence that souls were for a period separated from their bodies, which is an awkward conclusion.
(D.) But if it be said that both states alike are natural to the soul, as well the state of union with the body as the state of separation, according to difference
of times, this appears to be impossible, — because points of natural variation are accidents to the subject in which they occur, as age and youth: if then union with body and separation from a body are natural variations to the soul, the union of the soul with the body will be an accident; and man, the result of that union, will not be an ordinary, regular entity (ens per se), but a casual, incidental being (ens per accidens).
(E.) But if it is said that souls are united with bodies neither violently nor naturally, but of their own spontaneous will, that cannot be. For none is willing to come to a worse state except under deception. But the soul is in a higher state away from the body, especially according to the Platonists, who say that by union with the body the soul suffers forgetfulness of what it knew before, and is hindered from the contemplation of pure truth. At that rate it has no willingness to be united with a body except for some deceit practised upon it. Threfore, supposing it to have pre-existed before the body, it would not be united therewith of its own accord.
(F.) But if as an alternative it is said that the soul is united with the body neither by nature, nor by its own will, but by a divine ordinance, this again does not appear a suitable arrangement, on the supposition that souls were created before bodies. For God has established everything according to the proper mode of its nature: hence it is said: God saw all things that he had made, and they were very good (Gen. i, 31). If then He created souls apart from bodies, we must say that this mode of being is better suited to their nature. But it is not proper for an ordinance of divine goodness to reduce things to a lower state, but rather to rise them to a higher. At that rate the union of soul with body could not be the result of a divine ordinance.
(G.) This consideration moved Origen to suppose that when souls, created from the beginning of time, came by divine ordinance to be united with bodies, it was for their punishment. He supposed that they had sinned before they came into bodies, and that according to the amount of their guilt they were united with bodies of various degrees of nobility, shut up in them as in prisons. But this supposition cannot stand for reasons alleged above (Chap. ).
[lib.2.cap.84.n.1] Solutio rationum contra superiorem conclusionem. Rationes autem quibus probatur animas ab æterno fuisse vel saltem corporibus præexstitisse, facile est solvere. 1. Quod enim primo dicitur, animam habere virtutem ut sit semper, concedi oportet. Sed sciendum quod virtus et potentia rei non se extendit ad id quod fuit, sed ad id quod est vel erit; unde et in præteritis possibilitas locum non habet. Non igitur, ex hoc quod anima habet virtutem ut sit semper, potest concludi quod semper fuerit, sed quod semper erit. — Præterea, ex virtute non sequitur id ad quod est virtus, nisi præsupposita virtute. Quamvis igitur anima habeat virtutem ut sit semper, non tamen potest concludi quod anima sit semper, nisi postquam hanc virtutem acceptit. Si autem sumatur quod hanc virtutem ab æterno habuerit, erit petitum id quod oportebit probari, scilicet quod fuerit ab æterno. 2. Quod vero objicitur de æternitate veritatis quam intelligit anima, considerare oportet quod intellectivæ veritatis æternitas potest intelligi dupliciter: Uno modo, quantum ad id quod intelligitur; alio modo, quantum ad id quo intelligitur. Et si quidem veritas intellecta sit æterna quantum ad id quod intelligitur, sequetur æternitas rei quæ intelligitur, non autem intelligentis. Si autem veritas intellecta sit æterna quantum ad id quo intelligitur, sequetur intelligentem animam esse æternam. Sic autem veritas intellecta non est æterna, sed primo modo; ex præmissis enim patet species intelligibiles, quibus anima nostra intelligit veritatem, de novo nobis advenire ex phantasmatibus per intellectum agentem. Unde non potest concludi quod anima sit æterna, sed quod veritates intellectæ fundentur in aliquo æterno. Fundantur autem in ipsa prima veritate, sicut in causa universali contentiva omnis veritatis. Ad hoc autem æternum comparatur anima, non sicut subjectum ad formam, sed sicut res ad proprium finem; nam verum est bonum intellectus, et finis ipsius. Ex fine autem argumentum acci-pere possumus de rei duratione, sicut et de initio rei argumentari possumus per causam agentem; quod enim est ordinatum ad finem sempiternum, oportet esse capax perpetuæ durationis. Unde potest probari ex aternitate veritatis intelligibilis immortalitas animæ, non autem ejus aternitas. Quod vero non possit probari ex aternitate agentis, patet ex his quæ supra (c. xxxi-xxxvii) dicta sunt, quum de aternitate creaturarum quæreretur. 3. Quod etiam tertio objicitur de perfectione universi, necessitatem non habet. Universi enim perfectio attenditur quantum ad species, non quantum ad individua; quum continue universo plurima individua addantur præexsistentium specierum. Animæ autem humanæ non sunt diversæ secundum speciem, sed solum numero, ut probatum est (c. lxxv). Unde non repugnat perfectioni universi si animæ de novo creentur. 4. Ex quo etiam patet solutio ad id quod quarto objicitur. Similiter enim dicitur quod Deus consummavit opera sua, et quod requievit ab omni opere quod patrarat. Sicut ergo consummatio sive perfectio creaturarum secundum species consideratur et non secundum individua, ita quies Dei est intelligenda secundum cessationem a novis speciebus condendis, non autem a novis individuis quorum similia secundum speciem præcesserunt; et sic, quum omnes animæ humanæ sint unius speciei sicut et omnes homines, non repugnat prædictæ quieti si Deus quotidie novas animas creat. Sciendum autem est quod ab Aristotele non inventur dictum quod intellectus humanus sit aternus; quod tamen dicere consuevit in his quæ secundum suam opinionem semper fuerunt. Dicit autem ipsum esse perpetuum; quod quidem potest dici de his quæ semper erunt, etiamsi non semper fuerint; unde, quum animam intellectivam a conditione aliarum formarum exciperet, Metaphys. XII, c. iii, non dixit quod hæc forma fuerit ante materiam (quod tamen Plato de ideis dicebat, et sic videbatur conveniens materiæ in qua loquebatur ut aliquid tale de anima diceret), sed dixit quod manet post corpus.
Caput 85
[lib.2.cap.85.n.1] CHAPTER LXXXV—That the Soul is not of the substance of God
The divine substance is eternal, and nothing appertaining to it begins anew to be (B. I, Chap. ). But the souls of men were not before their bodies (Chap. ).
3. Everything out of which anything is made is in potentiality to that which is made out of it. But the substance of God, being pure actuality, is not in potentiality to anything (B. I, Chap. ).
4 and 5. That out of which anything is made is in some way changed. Moveover the soul of man is manifestly variable in point of knowledge, virtue, and their opposites. But God is absolutely unchangeable (B. I, Chap. ): therefore nothing can be made out of Him, nor can the soul be of His substance.
7. Since the divine substance is absolutely indivisible, the soul cannot be of that substance unless it be the whole substance. But the divine substance cannot but be one (B. I, Chap. ). It would follow that all men have but one intellectual soul, a conclusion already rejected (Chap. ).
This opinion seems to have had three sources. Some assumed that there was no incorporeal being, and made the chiefest of corporeal substances God. Hence sprang the theory of the Manichean, that God is a sort of corporeal light, pervading all the infinities of space, and that the human soul is a small glimmer of this light. Others have posited the intellect of all men to be one, either active intellect alone, or active and potential combined. And because the ancients called every self-subsistent intelligence a deity, it followed that our soul, or the intellect whereby we understand, had a divine nature. Hence sundry professors of the Christian faith in our time, who assert the separate existence of the active intellect, have said expressly that the active intellect is God. This opinion might also have arisen from the likeness of our soul to God: for intelligence, which is taken to be the chief characteristic of Deity, is found to belong to no substance in the sublunary world except to man alone, on account of his soul.
[lib.2.cap.85.n.1] Quod anima non est de substantia Dei. (I, q. xc, a. i.) Ex his etiam patet animam non esse de substantia Dei. 1. Ostensum est enim supra (l. I, c. xv) divinam substantiam esse aternam, nec aliquid ejus de novo incipere. Animæ autem humanæ non fuerunt ante corpora, ut ostensum est (c. lxxxiii). Non igitur anima potest esse de substantia divina. 2. Amplius, Ostensum est supra (l. I, c. xxvii) quod Deus nullius rei forma esse potest. Anima autem humana est forma corporis, ut ostensum est (c. lvii et lxviii-lxxii). Non igitur est de substantia divina. 3. Præterea, Omne illud ex quo fit aliquid est in potentia ad id quod fit ex eo. Substantia autem Dei non est in potentia ad aliquid, quum sit purus actus, ut supra (l. I, c. xvi) ostensum est. Impossibile est igitur quod ex substantia Dei fiat anima vel quodcumque aliud. 4. Adhuc, Illud ex quo fit aliquid modo mutatur. Deus autem est omnino immobilis, ut supra (l. I, c. xiii) probatum est. Impossibile est igitur quod ex eo aliquid fieri possit. 5. Amplius, In anima manifeste apparet variatio secundum scientiam et virtutem et eorum opposita. Deus autem est omnino invariabilis et per se et per accidens (ibid.). Non igitur anima potest esse de divina substantia. 6. Item, Supra ostensum est (l. I, c. xvi) quod Deus est actus purus, in quo nulla potentialitas inventur. In anima autem humana inventur et potentia et actus; est enim in ea intellectus possibilis, qui est potentia ad omnia intelligibilia, et intellectus agens, ut ex supradictis (c. lxix et lxxvi) patet. Non est igitur anima humana de natura divina. 7. Item, Quum substantia divina sit omnino impartibilis, non potest aliquid substantia ejus esse anima, nisi sit tota substantia ejus. Substantiam autem divinam est impossibile esse nisi unam, ut supra (l. I, c. xlii) ostensum est. Sequitur igitur quod omnium hominum sit tantum anima una, quantum ad intellectum; et hoc supra (c. LXXV) improbatum est. Non est igitur anima de substantia divina. Videtur autem hæc opinio ex triplici fonte processisse. 1. Quidam enim posuerunt nullam substantiam incorpoream esse; unde nobilis-simum corporum Deum esse dicebant, sive hoc esset aer, sive ignis, sive quod-cumque aliud principium ponebant; et de natura hujusmodi corporis animam esse dicebant; nam omnes id quod ponebant principium, animæ attribuebant, ut patet per Aristotelem, De anima, I, c. 11, et sic sequebatur animam esse de substantia divina. Et ex hac radice pullulavit positio Manichæi, qui existimavit Deum esse quamdam lucem corpoream per infinita spatia distensam, cujus quamdam particulam humanam animam esse dicebat. — Hæc autem positio supra (l. I, c. XX) improbata est per hoc quod ostensum est Deum non corpus esse, et per hoc quod ostensum est (c. LXV et XLIX animam humanam corpus non esse, nec aliquam intellectualem substantiam. 2. Quidam vero posuerunt intellectum omnium hominum esse unum, vel agentem tantum, vel agentem et possibile simul, sicut supra (c. LXXVI) dictum est; et quia quamlibet substantiam separatam antiqui Deum esse dicebant, sequebatur animam nostram, id est intellectum quo intelligimus, esse divinæ naturæ; unde et a quibusdam nostri temporis christianæ fidei professoribus, ponentibus intellectum agentem separatum, dictum est expresse quod intellectus agens sit Deus. — Hæc autem positio de unitate intellectus nostri supra (c. LXXIII et LXXV) improbata est. 3. Potuit autem ex ipsa similitudine animæ nostræ ad Deum hæc opinio nasci. Intelligere enim, quod maxime aestimatur proprium Dei, nulli substantiae in mundo inferiori convenire invenitur nisi homini propter animam; unde videri potuit animam ad naturam divinam pertinere, et præsertim apud homines in quorum opinionibus erat firmatum quod anima hominis esset immortalis. Adhuc etiam coadjuvare videtur quod, postquam dictum est: Faciamus hominem ad imaginem et similitudinem nostram, Gen. 1, 26, subditur: Formavit Dominus Deus hominem de limo terræ, et inspiravit in faciem ejus spiraculum vitæ, ibid. 11, 7. Ex quo quidam accipere voluerunt quod anima sit de natura divina; qui enim in faciem alterius inspirat, idem numero quod in ipso erat in alium emittit; et sic videtur Scriptura innuere quod aliquid divinum a Deo in hominem, ad ipsum vivificandum, immissum sit. Sed similitudo prædicta non ostendit animam hominis esse aliquid substantiae divinæ, quum in intelligendo defectum multipliciter patiatur; quod de Deo dici non potest. Unde hæc similitudo magis est indicativa cujusdam imperfectæ imaginis quam alicujus substantialitatis; quod etiam Scriptura innuit, quum dicit ad imaginem Dei hominem factum. Unde et inspiratio prædicta processum vitæ a Deo in hominem, secundum quamdam similitudinem, demonstrat, non secundum unitatem substantiae; propter quod et in faciem spiritus vitæ dicitur inspiratus, quia, quum in hac parte corporis sint plurium sensuum organa sita, in ipsa facie evidentius vita monstratur. Sic igitur Deus inspirasse in faciem hominis spiraculum vitæ dicitur, quia spiritum vitæ homini dedit, non eum ex sua substantia decidendo; nam et qui corporaliter insufflat in faciem alicujus (unde videtur sumpta esse metaphora) aerem in faciem ejus impellit, non autem aliquam suæ subtantiæ partem in ipsum emittit.
Caput 86
[lib.2.cap.86.n.1] CHAPTER LXXXVI—That the Human Soul is not transmitted by Generation
Where the activities of active principles suppose the concurrence of a body, the origination also of such principles supposed bodily concurrence: for a thing has existence according as it has activity: everything is active according to its being. But when active principles have their activities independent of bodily concurrence, the reverse is the case: the genesis of such principles is not by any bodily generation. Now the activity of the vegitative and sentient soul cannot be without bodily concurrence (Chapp. , ): but the activity of the intellectual soul has place through no bodily organ (Chap. ). Therefore the vegitative and sentient souls are generated by the generation of the body, and date their existence from the transmission of the male semen, but not the intellectual soul.
2. If the human soul owed its origin to the transmission of the male semen, that could be only in one of two ways. Either we must suppose that the soul is actually in the male semen, being as it were accidentally separated from the soul of the generator as the semen is separated from the body: — we see something of this sort in Annelid animals, that live when cut in pieces: these creatures have one soul actually and many potentially; and when the body is divided, a soul comes to be actually in every living part: — or in another way it may be supposed that there is in the male semen a power productive of an
intellectual soul, so that the intellectual soul may be taken to be in the said semen virtually, not actually. The first of these suppositions is impossible for two reasons. First, because the intelligent soul being the most perfect of souls and the most potent, the proper subject for it to perfect is a body having a great diversity of organs apt to respond to its manifold activities: hence the intellectual soul cannot be in the male semen cut off from the body (in semine deciso), because neither are the souls of the lower animals of the more perfect sort multiplied by cutting them in pieces (per decisionem), as is the case with Annelid animals. Secondly, because the proper and principal faculty of the intelligent soul, the intellect, not being the actualisation of any part of the body, cannot be accidentally divided with the division of the body: therefore neither can the intelligent soul. The second supposition (that the intelligent soul is virtually contained in the male semen) is also impossible. For the active power in the semen is effectual to the generation of an animal by effecting a bodily transmutation: there is no other way for a material power to take effect. But every form, which owes its being to a transmutation of matter, has being in dependence on matter: for (n. 3) every form, educed into existence by a transmutation of matter, is a form educed out of the potentiality of matter: for this is the meaning of a transmutation of matter, that something is educed into actuality out of potentiality. But an intelligent soul cannot be educed out of the potentiality of matter: for it has been shown above (Chap. ) that the intelligent soul transcends the whole power of matter, as it has an immaterial activity (Chap. ). Therefore the intelligent soul is not induced into being by any transmutation of matter, and therefore not by the action of any power that is in the male semen.
5. It is ridiculous to say that any subsistent intelligence is either divided by division of the body or produced by any corporeal power. But the soul is a subsistent intelligence (Chap. ). Therefore it can neither be divided by the separation of the semen from the body, nor produced by any active power in the same.
6. If the generation of this is the cause of that coming to be, the destruction of this will be the cause of that ceasing to be. But the destruction of the body is not the cause of the human soul ceasing to be (Chap. ). Neither then is the generation of the body the cause of the soul commencing to be.
[lib.2.cap.86.n.1] Quod anima humana non traducatur cum semine. (I, q. cxviii, a. 1.) Ex præmissis autem ostendi potest quod anima humana non traducitur cum semine, quasi per coitum seminata. 1. Quorumcumque enim principiorum operationes non possunt esse sine corpore, nec eorum initium sine corpore esse potest; sic enim res habet esse sicut et operatur, quum unumquodque operetur, in quantum est ens. E contrario vero, quorum principiorum operationes sine corpore sunt, generatio eorum non est per generationem corporis. Operatio autem anima nutritivæ et sensitivæ non potest esse sine corpore, ut ex præmissis (c. LVII et LXVIII) patet; operatio autem anima intellectivæ non fit per organum corporeum, ut supra (c. LXIX) habitum est. Igitur anima nutritiva et sensitiva per generationem corporis generantur, non autem anima intellectiva. Sed traductio seminis ad corporis generationem ordinatur. Igitur anima nutritiva et sensitiva esse incipiunt per seminis traductionem, non autem intellectiva. 2. Adhuc, Si anima humana per traductionem seminis esse inciperet, hoc non posset esse nisi dupliciter: Uno modo, ut intelligeretur esse in semine actu, quasi per accidens divisa ab anima generantis sicut semen dividitur a corpore, ut videmus in animalibus annulosis quæ decisa vivunt, in quibus est anima una in actu et multæ in potentia, diviso autem corpore animalis prædicti, in qualibet parte vivente incipit anima esse actu; alio modo, ut intelligatur in semine esse virtus productiva animæ intellectivæ, ut sic anima intellectiva ponatur in semine, virtute, sed non actu. Primum autem horum est impossibile duplici ratione. — Primo, quia, quum anima intellectiva sit perfectissima animarum et maximæ virtutis, ejus proprium perfectibile est corpus habens magnam diversitatem in organis per quæ possunt multiplices ejus operationes expleri; unde non potest esse quod fiat actu in semine deciso, quia nec etiam animæ brutorum perfectorum per decisionem multiplicantur, prout contingit in animalibus annulosis. — Secundo, quia, quum intellectus, qui est propria et principalis virtus animæ intellectivæ, non sit alicujus partis corporis actus, non potest dividi per accidens secundum corporis divisionem; unde nec anima intellectiva. Secundum etiam est impossibile. Virtus enim activa quæ est in semine agit ad generationem animalis transmutando corpus; non enim aliter agere potest virtus quæ est in materia. Sed omnis forma quæ incipit esse per transmutationem materiæ habet esse a materia dependens; transmutatio enim materiæ reducit eam de potentia in actum, et sic determinatur ad esse actu materiæ quod est per unionem formæ; unde, si per hoc etiam incipiat esse formæ, simpliciter esse formæ non erit nisi in hoc quod est uniri materiæ, et sic erit secundum esse a materia dependens. Si igitur anima humana producatur in esse per virtutem activam quæ est in semine, sequitur quod esse suum sit dependens a materia, sicut esse alia-rum formarum materialium; cujus contrarium supra (c. Lxxix) ostensum est. Nullo igitur modo anima intellectiva producitur in esse per seminis traductionem. 3. Amplius, Omnis forma quæ educitur in esse per materiæ transmutationem est forma educta de potentia materiæ; hoc enim est materiam transmutari, de potentia in actum educi. Anima autem intellectiva non potest educi de potentia materiæ; jam enim supra (c. Lxviii) ostensum est quod ipsa anima intellectiva excedit totum possse materiæ, quum habeat aliquam operationem absque materia, ut supra (c. Lxix) ostensum est. Non igitur anima intellectiva in esse educitur per transmutationem materiæ, et sic neque per actionem virtutis quæ est in semine. 4. Præterea, Nulla virtus activa agit ultra suum genus. Sed anima intellectiva excedit totum genus corporum, quum habeat operationem super omnia corpora elevatam, quæ est intelligere. Nulla igitur virtus corporea potest producere animam intellectivam. Sed omnis actio virtutis quæ est in semine est per aliquam corpoream virtutem; agit enim virtus formativa, mediante triplici calore, scilicet ignis, cœlii, et calore animæ. Non igitur potest produci in esse anima intellectiva per virtutem quæ est in semine. 5. Præterea, Ridiculum est dicere aliquam intellectualem substantiam vel per divisionem corporis dividi vel etiam ab aliqua virtute corporea produci. Sed anima humana est quædam intellectualis substantia, ut supra (c. Lxviii) ostensum est. Non igitur potest dici quod dividatur per divisionem seminis, neque quod producatur in esse a virtute activa quæ est in semine; et sic nullo modo per seminis traductionem anima humana incipit esse. 6. Præterea, Si generatio alicujus est causa quod aliquid sit, corruptio ejus erit causa quod illud esse desinat. Corruptio autem corporis non est causa quod anima humana esse desinat, quum sit immortalis, ut supra (c. Lxxix) ostensum est. Neque igitur generatio corporis est causa quod anima incipiat esse. Sed traductio seminis est causa propria generationis corporis. Non est igitur traductio seminis causa generationis animæ in esse. Per hoc autem excluditur error Apollinaris et sequacium ejus, qui dixerunt 1, animas ab animabus generari sicut a corporibus corpora.
Caput 87
[lib.2.cap.87.n.1] CHAPTER LXXXVII—That the Human Soul is brought into Being by a Creative Act of God
Everything that is brought into being is either generated or created. But the human soul is not generated, either by way of composition of parts or by the generation of the body (Chap. ); and yet it comes new into existence, being neither eternal nor pre-existent (Chapp. , ): therefore it comes into being by creation. Now, as has been shown above, God alone can create (Chap. ).
2. Whatever has existence as subsistent being, is also made in the way that a subsistent being is made: while whatever has no existence as a subsistent being, but is attached to something else, is not made separately, but only under condition of that having been made to which it is attached. But the soul has this peculiarity to distinguish it from other forms, that it is a
subsistent being; and the existence which is proper to it communicates to the body. The soul then is made as a subsistent being is made: it is the subject of a making-process all its own, unlike other forms, which are made incidentally in the making of the compounds to which hey belong. But as the soul has no material part, it cannot be made out of any subject-matter: consequently it must be made out of nothing, and so created.
5. The end of a thing answers to its beginning. Now the end of the human soul and its final perfection is, by knowledge and love to transcend the whole order of created things, and attain to its first principle and beginning, which is God. Therefore from God it has properly its first origin.
Holy Scripture seems to insinuate this conclusion: for whereas, speaking of the origin of other animals, it scribes their souls to other causes, as when it says: Let the waters produce the creeping thing of living soul (Gen. i, 20): coming to man, it shows that his soul is created by God, saying: God formed man from the slime of the earth, and breathed into his face the breath of life (Gen. ii, 7).
[lib.2.cap.87.n.1] Quod anima humana producatur in esse a Deo per creationem. (I q. xc, a. 11.) Ex his autem quæ dicta sunt ostendi potest quod solus Deus animam humanam in esse producit. 4° Omne enim quod in esse producitur, vel generatur per se aut per accidens, vel creatur. Anima autem humana non generatur per se, quum non sit composita ex materia et forma, ut supra (c. l et seqq.) ostensum est; neque generatur per accidens; quum enim sit forma corporis, generaretur per corporis generationem, quæ est ex virtute activa seminis, quod improbatum est (c. lxxxvi). Qnum ergo anima humana de novo esse incipiat (non enim est æterna nec præxsistit corpori, ut supra (c. lxxxiii et lxxxiv ostensum est), relinquitur quod exeat in esse per creationem. Ostensum est autem supra (c. xxi) quod solus Deus potest creare. Solus igitur Ipse animam humanam in esse producit. 2. Amplius, Omne illud cujus substantia non est suum esse habet sui esse auctorem, ut supra (c. xv) ostensum est. Anima autem humana non est suum esse; hoc enim solius Dei est (l. I, c. xxi et xxii). Habet igitur causam activam sui esse. Sed quod per se habet esse per se etiam agitur; quod vero non habet esse per se, sed solum cum alio, non per se fit, sed alio facto, sicut forma ignis fit igne generato. Anima autem humana hoc habet proprium, inter alias formas, quod est in suo esse subsistens, et esse quod est sibi proprium corpori communitat. Anima igitur per se habet suum fieri, præter modum aliarum formarum quæ fiunt per accidens compositis factis. Sed, quum anima humana non habeat materiam partem sui, non potest fieri ex aliquo sicut ex materia. Relinquitur ergo quod ex nihilo fiat, et sic creetur. Quum igitur creatio sit opus proprium Dei, ut supra (c. xxi) ostensum est, sequitur quod a solo Deo immediate creatur. 3. Adhuc, Eorum quæ sunt unius generis est idem modus prodeundi in esse, ut supra (c. xvi) probatum est. Anima autem est de genere substantiarum intellectualium, quæ non possunt aliter intelligi prodiri in esse nisi per viam creationis. Anima igitur humana exit in esse per creationem a Deo. 4. Item, Quidquid producitur in esse ab aliquo agente acquirit ab ipso vel aliquid quod est principium essendi in tali specie vel ipsum esse absolutum. Anima autem non potest sic produci in esse quod acquiratur ei aliquid quod sit principium essendi, sicut contingit in rebus compositis ex materia et forma, quæ generantur per hoc quod acquirunt formam in actu; non enim habet anima aliquid in seipsa quod sit sibi principium essendi, quum sit substantia simplex, ut supra (c. l et seq.) ostensum est. Relinquitur igitur quod non producatur in esse ab aliquo agente, nisi per hoc quod consequitur ab ipso esse absolute. Ipsum autem esse est proprius effectus primi et universalis agentis; secunda enim agentia agunt per hoc quod imprimunt similitudines suarum formarum in rebus factis, quæ sunt formæ factorum. Anima igitur non potest produci in esse nisi a primo et universali agente, quod est Deus. 5. Præterea, Finis rei respondet principio ejus; tunc enim res perfecta est quum ad primum principium pertingit vel per similitudinem vel quocumque modo. Finis autem animæ humanæ et ultima ejus perfectio est quod per cognitionem et amorem transcendat totum ordinem creaturarum, et pertingat ad primum principium, quod Deus est. Igitur a Deo habet proprie suæ originis principium. Hoc etiam innuere videtur sacra Scriptura. Quum enim, de institutione aliorum animalium loquens, eorum animas aliis causis adscribat, utpote quum dicit: Producant aquæ reptile animæ viventis, Gen. 1, 20, et similiter de aliis, ad hominem veniens, animam ejus a Deo creari « Ipsi quoque Apollinario videtur animas ab animis creari velut a corporibus; quippe aniostendit, dicens: Formavit Deus hominem de limo terræ, et inspiravit in faciem ejus spiraculum vitæ, Gen. 11, 7. Per hoc autem excluditur error ponentium animas ab Angelis esse creatas.
Caput 88
[lib.2.cap.88.n.1] CHAPTER LXXXVIII, LXXXIX—Arguments against the Truth of the Conclusion last drawn, with their Solution
For the better understanding of the solutions given, we must prefix some exposition of the order and process of human generation, and of animal generation generally. First then we must know that that is a false opinion of certain persons who say that the vital acts which appear in the embryo before its final development (ante ultimum complementum), come not from any soul or power of soul existing in it, but from the soul of the mother. If that were true, we could no longer call the embryo an animal, as every animal consists of soul and body. The activities of life do not proceed from an active principle from without, but from a power within; a fact which seems to mark the distinction between inanimate and living things, it being proper to the latter to move themselves. Whatever is nourished, assimilates nourishment to itself: hence there must be in the creature that is nourished an active power of nutrition, since an agent acts to the likeness of itself. This is still more manifest in the operations of sense: for sight and hearing are attributable to a power existing in the sentient subject, not in another. Hence, as the embryo is evidently nourished before its final development, and even feels, this cannot be attributed to the soul of another.
It has been alleged that the soul in its complete essence is in the male semen from the first, its activities not appearing merely for want of organs. But that cannot be. For since the soul is united with the body as a form, it is only united with that body of which it is properly the actualisation. Now the soul is the actualisation of an organised body. Therefore before the organisation of the body the soul is in the male semen, not actually, but virtually. Hence Aristotle says that seed and fruit have life potentially in such a way
that they “cast away,” i.e. are destitute of soul; whereas that (body) whereof the soul is the actualisation has life potentially, and does not “cast away” soul.
It would follow, if the soul were in the male semen from the first, that the generation of an animal was only by fissure (per decisionem), as is the case with Annelid animals, that are made two out of one. For if the male semen has a soul the instant it was cut off from the body, it would then have a substantial form. But every substantial generation precedes and does not follow the substantial form. Any transmutations that follow the substantial form are not directed to the being of the thing generated, but to its well-being. At that rate the generation of the animal would be complete in the mere cutting off of the male semen from the body of the parent; and all subsequent transmutations would be irrelevant to generation. The supposition is still more ridiculous when applied to the rational soul, as well because it is impossible for that to be divided according to the division of the body, so as even to be in the semen cut off therefrom; as also because it would follow that in all cases of the semen being wasted, without conception ensuing, souls were still multiplied.
Nor again can it be said, as some say, that though there is not in the male semen at its first cutting off any soul actually, but only virtually, for want of organs, nevertheless, as the said semen is a bodily substance, organisable although not organised, so the active power of that semen is itself a soul, potential but not actual, proportional to the condition of the semen. The theory goes on to say that, as the life of a plant requires fewer organs than the life of an animal, the aforesaid active power turns into a vegetative soul as soon as the semen is sufficiently organised for the life of a plant; and further that, when the organs are more perfected and multiplied, the same power is advanced to be a sentient soul; and further still that, when the form of the organs is perfect, the same becomes a rational soul, not indeed by the action of the power of the semen itself, but only by the influence of some exterior agent: and this the advocates of this theory take to be the reason why Aristotle said (De gen. animal., II, iii) that the intellect is from without.
Upon this view it would follow that numerically the same active power was now a vegetative soul only, and afterwards a sentient soul; and so the substantial form itself was continually more and more perfected: it would further follow that a substantial form was educed from potentiality to actuality, not instantaneously, but successively; and further than generation was a continuous change, as is alteration, — all so many physical impossibilities. There would ensue even a still more awkward consequence, that the rational soul was mortal. For no formal constituent added to a perishable thing makes it naturally imperishable: otherwise the perishable would be changed into the imperishable, which is impossible, as the two differ in kind. But the substance of the sentient soul, which is supposed to be incidentally generated when the body is generated in the process above described, is necessarily perishable with the perishing of the body. If therefore this soul becomes
rational by the bringing in of some manner of light from without to be a formal constituent of the soul, it necessarily follows that the rational soul perishes when the body perishes, contrary to which has been shown (Chap. ) and to the teaching of Catholic faith.
Therefore the active power which is cut off, or emitted, with the male semen from the body, and is called ‘formative,’ is not itself the soul, nor ever becomes the soul in the process of generation. But the frothy substance of the male semen contains gas (spiritus), and this gas is the subject on which the formative power rests, and in which it is inherent. So the formative power works out the formation of the body, acting in virtue of the soul of the father, the prime author of generation, not in virtue of the soul of the offspring, even after the offspring comes to have a soul: for the offspring does not generate itself, but is generated by the father. This is clear by enumeration of the several powers of the soul. The formation is not attributable to the soul of the embryo itself on the score of that soul’s generative power: for that power puts forth no activity till the work of nutrition and growth is complete; and besides, its work is not directed to the perfection of the individual, but to the preservation of the species. Nor can it be assigned to the embryo’s nutritive power, the work of which is to assimilate nourishment to the body nourished; for in this case there is no room for such a work; since nourishment taken while the body is in formation is not applied to assume the likeness of a pre-existent body, but goes to the production of a more perfect form and a nearer approach to the likeness of the father. Nor is the development of the embro attributable to its own power of growth: for to power of growth there does not belong change of form, but only change in bulk. And as for the sensitive and intellectual powers, it is clear that theirs is no office bearing on such a development. It follows that the formation of the body, particularly of its earliest and principal parts, does
not proceed from the engendered soul, nor from any formative power acting in virtue thereof, but from a formative power acting in virtue of the generative soul of the father, the work of which is to make another like in species to the progenitor. This formative power therefore remains the same in the subject aforesaid from the beginning of the formation even to the end. But the appearance of the being under formation does not remain the same: for first it has the appearance of semen, afterwards of blood, and so on until it arrives at its final completeness.
Nor need we be uneasy in admitting the generation of an intermediate product, the existence of which is presently after broken off, because such transitional links are not complete in their species, but are on the way to a perfect species; and therefore they are not engendered to endure, but as stages of being, leading up to finality in the order of generation. The higher a form is in the scale of being, and the further it is removed from a mere material form, the more intermediate forms and intermediate generation must be passed through before the finally perfect form is reached. Therefore in the generation of animal and man, — these having the most perfect form, — there occur many intermediate forms and generations, and consequently destructions, because the generation of one being is the destruction of another. The vegetative soul therefore, which is first in the embryo, while it lives the life of a plant, is destroyed, and there succeeds a more perfect soul, which is at one nutrient and sentient, and for that time the embryo lives the life of an animal: upon the destruction of this, there succeeds the rational soul, infused from without, whereas the preceding two owed their existence to the virtue of the male semen.
With these principles recognised, it is easy to answer the objections.
Arg. 1. Man being an animal by the possession of a sentient soul, and the notion of ‘animal’ befitting man in the same sense as it befits other animals, it appears that the sentient soul of man is of the same kind as the souls of other animals. But things of the same kind have the same manner of coming to be. Therefore the sentient soul of man, as of other animals, comes to be by the active power that is in the male semen. But the sentient and the intelligent soul in man is one in substance (Chap. ). It appears then that even the intelligent soul is produced by the active power of the semen.
Reply. Though sensitive soul in man and brute agree generically, yet they differ specifically. As the animal, man, differs specifically from other animals by being rational, so the sentient soul of a man differs specifically from the sentient soul of a brute by being also intelligent. The soul therefore of a brute has sentient attributes only, and consequently neither its being nor its activity rises above the order of the body: hence it must be generated with the generation of the body, and perish with its destruction. But the sentient soul in man, over and above its sentient nature, has intellectual power: hence the very substance of this soul must be raised above the bodily order both in being and in activity; and therefore it is neither generated by the generation of the body, nor perishes by its destruction.
Arg. 2. As Aristotle teaches, in point of time the foetus is an animal before it is a man. But while it is an animal and not yet a man, it has a sentient and not an intelligent soul, which sentient soul beyond doubt is produced by the active power of the male semen. Now that self-same sentient soul is potentially intelligent, even as that animal is potentially a rational animal: unless one chooses to say that the intelligent soul which supervenes is another substance altogether, a conclusion rejected above (Chap. ). It appears then that the substance of the intelligent soul comes of the active power that is in the semen.
Reply. The sentient soul, whereby the human foetus was an animal, does not last, but its place is taken by a soul that is at once sentient and intelligent.
Arg. 3. The soul, as it is the form of the body, is one being with the body. But unity of thing produced, unity of productive action, and unity of producing agent, all go together. Therefore the one being of soul and body must be the result of one productive action of one productive agent. But confessedly the body is produced by the productive action of the power that is in the male semen. Therefore the soul also, as it is the form of the body, is produced by the same productive action, and not by any separate agency.
Reply. The principle of corresponding unity of produced, production, and producer, holds good to the exclusion of a plurality of productive agents not acting in co-ordination with one another. Where they are co-ordinate, several agents have but one effect. Thus the prime efficient cause acts to the production of the effect of the secondary efficient cause even more vigorously
than the secondary cause itself; and we see that the effect produced by a principal agent through the agency of an instrument is more properly attributed to the principal agent than to the instrument. Sometimes too the action of the principal agent reaches to some part of the thing done, to which the action of the instrument does not reach. Since then the whole active power of nature stands to God as an instrument to the prime and principal agent, we find no difficulty in the productive action of nature being terminated to a part only of that one term of generation, man, and not to the whole of what is produced by the action of God. The body then of man is formed at once by the power of God, the principal and prime agent, and by the power of the semen, the secondary agent. But the action of God produces the human soul, which the power of the male semen cannot produce, but only dispose thereto.
Arg. 4. Man generates his own specific likeness by the power that is in the detached semen, which generation means causing the specific form of the generated. The human soul therefore, the specific form of man, is caused by the power in the semen.
Reply. Man generates his specific likeness, inasmuch as the power of his semen operates to prepare for the coming of the final form which gives the species to man.
Arg. 5. If souls are created by God, He puts the last hand to the engendering of children born sometimes of adultery.
Reply. There is no difficulty in that. Not the nature of adulterers is evil, but their will: now the effect which their semen produces is natural, not voluntary: hence there is no difficulty in God’s co-operating to that effect and giving it completeness.
In a book ascribed to Gregory of Nyssa there are found further arguments, as follows:
Arg. 6. Soul and body make one whole, that is, one man. If then the soul is made before the body, or the body before the soul, the same thing will be prior and posterior to itself. Therefore body and soul are made together. But the body begins in the cutting off, or emission, of the semen. Therefore the soul also is brought into being by the same.
Reply. Allowing that the human body is formed before the soul is created, or conversely, still it does not follow that the same man is prior to himself: for man is not his body or his soul. It only follows that one part of him is prior to another part; and in that there is no difficulty: for matter is prior in time to form, — matter, I mean, inasmuch as it is in potentiality to form, not inasmuch as it is actually perfected by form, for so it is together with form. The human body then, inasmuch as it is in potentiality to soul, as not yet having the soul, is prior in time to the soul: but, for that time, it is not actually human, only potentially so: but when it is actually human, as being perfected by a human soul, it is neither prior nor posterior to the soul, but together with it.
Arg. 7. An agent’s activity seems to be imperfect, when he does not produce and bring the whole thing into being, but only half makes it. If then God brought the soul into being, while the body was formed by the power of the male semen, body and soul being the two parts of man, the activities
of God and of the seminal power would be both imperfect. Therefore the body and soul of man are both produced by the same cause. But certainly the body of man is produced by the power of the semen: therefore also the soul.
Reply. Body and soul are both produced by the power of God, though the formation of the body is of God through the intermediate instrumentality of the power of the natural semen, while the soul He produces immediately. Neither does it follow that the action of the power of the semen is imperfect, since it fulfils the purpose of its existence.
Arg. 8. In all things that are engendered of seed, the parts of the thing engendered are all contained together in the seed, though they do not actually appear: as we see that in wheat or in any other send the green blade and stalk and knots and grains and ears are virtually contained in the original seed; and afterwards the seed gathers bulk and expansion by a process of natural consequence leading to its perfection, without taking up any new feature from without. But the soul is part of man. Therefore in the male semen of man the human soul is virtually contained, and it does not take its origin from any exterior cause.
Reply. In seed are virtually contained all things that do not transcend corporeal power, as grass, stalk, knots, and the like: from which there is no concluding that the special element in man which transcends the whole range of corporeal power is virtually contained in the seed.
Arg. 9. Things that have the same development and the same consummation must have the same first origin. But in the generation of man we find the same development and the same consummation: for as the configuration and growth of the limbs advances, the activities of the soul show themselves more and more: for first appears the activity of the sentient soul, and last of all, when the body is complete, the activity of the intelligent soul. Therefore body and soul have the same origin. But the first origin of the body is in the emission of the male semen: such therefore also is the origin of the soul.
Reply. All that this shows is that a certain arrangement of the parts of the body is necessary for the activity of the soul.
Arg. 10. What is conformed to a thing, is set up according to the plan of that to which it is conformed, as wax takes the impress of a seal. But the body of man and of every animal is conformed to its own soul, having such disposition of organs as suits the activities of the power to be exercised through those organs. The body then is formed by the action of the soul: hence also Aristotle says that the soul is the efficient cause of the body. This could not be, if the soul were not in the male semen: for the body is formed by the power that is in that semen: therefore the soul has its origin in that emission of it.
Reply. That the body is conformed and fashioned according to the soul, and that therefore the soul prepares a body like unto itself, is a statement partly true and partly false. Understood of the soul of the generator, it is true: understood of the soul of the generated, it is false. The formation of the body in its prime and principal parts is not due to the soul of the generated, but to the soul of the generator, as has been shown.
Arg. 11. Nothing lives except by a soul. But the male semen is alive, of which fact there are three indications. In the first place, the semen is cut off
and detached from a living being: secondly, there appears in it vital heat and activity: thirdly, the seeds of plants, committed to earth, could never warm to life from the lifeless earth, had they not life in themselves.
Reply. The semen is not alive actually, but potentially, and has a soul, not actually, but virtually. In the process of generation the embryo comes to have a vegetative and a sentient soul by the virtue of the semen, which souls do not endure, but pass away and are succeeded by a rational soul.
Arg. 12. If the soul is not before the body (Chap. ), nor begins with the liberation of the semen, it follows that the body is first formed, and afterwards there is infused into it a soul newly created. But if this is true, it follows further that the soul is for the body: for what is for another appears after it, as clothes are for men and are made after them. But that is false: rather the body is for he soul, as the end is ever the more noble. We must say then that the origin of the soul is simultaneous with the emission of the semen.
Reply. There are two ways of one thing being ‘for another.’ A thing may be to serve the activity, or secure the preservation, or otherwise promote the good of another, presupposing its being; and such things are posterior to that for which they are, as clothes for the person, or tools for the mechanic. Or a thing may be ‘for another’ in view of that other’s being: what is thus ‘for another’ is prior to it in time and posterior to it in nature. In this latter way the body is for the soul, as all matter is for its form. The case would be otherwise, if soul and body did not make one being, as they say who take the soul not to be the form of the body.
[lib.2.cap.88.n.1] Rationes ad probandum quod anima humana causetur ex semine. Sunt autem quædam quæ præmissis videntur esse adversa. 1. Quum enim homo sit animal, in quantum habet animam sensitivam, ratio autem animalis univoce homini et aliis animalibus conveniat, videtur quod anima sensitiva hominis sit ejusdem generis cum animabus aliorum animalium. Quæ autem sunt unius generis eumdem modum habent procedendi in esse. Anima igitur sensitiva hominis, sicut et aliorum animalium, per virtutem quæ est in semine in esse procedit. Est autem idem secundum substantiam anima intellectiva et sensitiva in homine, ut supra (c. lviii) ostensum est. Videtur igitur quod etiam anima intellectiva per virtutem seminis producatur. 2. Præterea, Sicut docet Aristoteles, De generat. anim. II, c. iii, prius tempore est fætus animal quam homo. Sed quum est animal et non homo, habet animam sensitivam et non intellectivam; quam quidem sensitivam non est dubium ex virtute activa seminis produci, sicut et in cæteris animalibus contingit; illa autem met anima sensitiva est in potentia ut sit intellectiva, sicut illud animal est in potentia ut sit animal rationale; 3 « Sed cum unus et idem homo sit qui corpore et animo constat, unum esse commune que tribuendum ei dicimus exsistendi principium, ne parte hac seipso prior, altera junior sit et posterior; quocirca alterum alteri præponi non debere, quasi singularum in partium creatione vel animus sit ante corpus conditus, vel e contrario corpus ante animum. Si statueremus alterum de his aliquanto prius ortum exstitisse, quam alterum esse inciperet, plane hoc indicio foret, conditoris potestatem non omnino perfectam quamdam esse, propterea quod operi universo simul absolvendo non sufferit, ideoque operas quasi interruperit. Ut in tritici grano vel quovis alio semine totam spicæ vel frugum maturarum speciem potestate nisi forte dicatur quod anima intellectiva superveniens sit alia substantia, quod supra (c. lviii) improbatum est. Videtur ergo quod substantia animæ intellectivæ sit ex virtute quæ est in semine. 3. Item, Anima, quum sit forma corporis, unitur corpori secundum suum esse. Sed ad ea quæ sunt unum secundum esse terminatur una actio et unius agentis; si enim sunt diversa agentia et per consequens diversæ actiones, sequetur quod sint facta diversa secundum esse. Oportet ergo unius agentis unam actionem terminari ad esse animæ et corporis. Constat autem quod corpus fit per actionem virtutis quæ est in semine. Ergo et ab eadem est anima, quæ est ejus forma, et non ab agente separatio. 4. Amplius, Homo generat sibi simile secundum speciem per virtutem quæ est in semine deciso. Omne autem agens univocum generat sibi simile in specie per hoc quod causat formam generati, a qua est ejus species. Anima igitur humana, a qua est species hominis, producitur ex virtute quæ est in semine. 5. Item, Apollinaris sic argumentatur: Quicumque dat complementum operi cooperatur agenti; sed si animæ creantur a Deo, ipse dat complementum generationi puerorum qui quando ex adulteris nascuntur; ergo Deus cooperatur adulteris; quod sibi inconveniens videtur. Inveniuntur autem, in libro qui Gregorio Nysseno adscribitur, quædam rationes ad hoc idem probandum. Argumentatur autem sic: 6. Ex anima et corpore fit unum, quod est homo unus; si igitur anima fiat prius 3 « Sed cum unus et idem homo sit qui corpore et animo constat, unum esse commune que tribuendum ei dicimus exsistendi principium, ne parte hac seipso prior, altera junior sit et posterior; quocirca alterum alteri præponi non debere, quasi singularum in partium creatione vel animus sit ante corpus conditus, vel e contrario corpus ante animum. Si statueremus alterum de his aliquanto prius ortum exstitisse, quam alterum esse inciperet, plane hoc indicio foret, conditoris potestatem non omnino perfectam quamdam esse, propterea quod operi universo simul absolvendo non sufferit, ideoque operas quasi interruperit. Ut in tritici grano vel quovis alio semine totam spicæ vel frugum maturarum speciem potestate comprehensam dicimus, et herbam, et culmum, et internodia, et fructum, et aristas, cum naturali ordine insita semini facultas appareat, nulla in semine alia se natura extrinsecus velut insinuante, sic etiam existimamus humano in semine facultatem naturalem contineri, simul cum ipso excretam. Ut in eo quod materna in alvo ad conceptionem corporis deponitur, antequam formetur, perspici articulata membrorum colhærentium distinctio nequit, sic neque vis animi propria in eodem potest... et futuri hominis potestas existit in semine. Uti corpus exorsum a magnitudine per exigua, suam ad perfectionem progreditur; sic animi facultas etiam ratione conveniente una cum corpore proficit accrescendo. Si corporis in conformatione quid animus efficiat quæris, ad teipsum respice, in teipso tanquam in libro quodam totam animi operum historiam perleges. quam corpus aut corpus prius quam anima, idem erit prius et posterius seipso, quod videtur impossibile; simuligitur fit corpus et anima. Sed corpus incipit fieri in decisione seminis. Ergo et per decisionem seminis anima in esse producitur. 7. Adhuc, Imperfecta videtur esse operatio agentis qui non totam rem in esse producit, sed solum ejus alteram partem. Si igitur Deus animam in esse produceret, corpus vero virtute seminis formaretur, quae duo sunt partes unius, scilicet hominis, utriusque operatio, scilicet Dei et seminativæ virtutis, imperfecta videretur; quod patet esse inconveniens. Ab una igitur et eadem causa producitur anima et corpus hominis. Constat autem corpus hominis produci virtute seminis. Ergo et anima. 8. Item, In omnibus quæ generantur ex semine, omnes partes rei generatæ simul comprehenduntur virtute in semine, licet actu non appareant; sicut videmus, in tritico aut in quolibet alio semine, quod herba et culmus et internodia et fructus et aristæ virtute comprehenduntur in primo semine, et postea protenditur semen et dilatatur quadam consequentia naturali ad perfectionem, non assumens aliquid extrinsecum. Constat autem animam esse partem hominis. In semine igitur hominis, virtute continetur anima humana; non autem ex aliqua exteriori causa principium sumit. 9. Amplius, Eorum quorum inventur idem processus et terminus, oportet esse idem originis principium. Sed in generatione hominis idem processus corporis et animæ et idem terminus inventur: secundum enim quod figuratio et quantitas membrorum procedit, et animæ etiam operationes magis ac magis manifestur; nam prius apparet operatio animæ sensitivæ, et tandem, corpore completo, operatio animæ intellectivæ. Ergo idem est principium animæ et corporis. Sed principium originis corporis est per decisionem seminis. Ergo est et principium originis animæ. 10. Adhuc, Quod configuratur alicui, constituitur ex ratione ejus cui configuratur; sicut cera, quæ configuratur sigillo, accipit hanc configurationem ex impressione sigilli. Constat autem corpus hominis et cujuslibet animalis esse propriæ animæ configuratum; talis est enim organorum dispositio qualis competit ad operationes animæ per ea exercendas. Corpus igitur formatur ex actione animæ; unde etiam Aristoteles dicit, De anima, II, c. iv, quod anima est efficiens causa corporis. Hoc autem non esset, nisi anima esset in semine; nam corpus per virtutem quæ est in semine constituitur. Est igitur anima humana in semine hominis, et ita ex decisione seminis originem habet. 11. Item, Nihil vivit nisi per animam. Semen autem est vivum; quod patet ex tribus: Primo quidem, quia a vivente deciditur; secundo, quia in semine apparet calor vitalis et operatio vitæ, quæ sunt rei viventis indicia; tertio, quia semina plantarum terræ mandata, nisi in se vitam haberent, ex terra, quæ est exanimis, non possent calescere ad vivendum. Est igitur anima in semine, et sic ex decisione seminis vitam habet et originem capit. 12. Amplius, Si anima non est ante corpus, ut ostensum est (c. lxxxiii), neque incipit esse cum seminis decisione, sequitur quod prius formetur corpus et postea ei infundatur anima de novo creata. Sed si hoc est verum, sequitur ulterius quod anima sit propter corpus; quod enim est propter aliud inventur eo posterius, sicut vestimenta sunt propter hominem. Hoc autem est falsum; nam magis est corpus propter animam; finis enim semper nobiliar est. Oportet igitur dicere quod anima simul cum decisione seminis oriatur. Patet nequaquam mortuum et inanimum existere in officina naturæ, quod ad plantationem quasi quamdam animalis de vivo avulsum corpore in ea deponitur. Nam et fructuum grana, radicumque surculos terræ non mandamus, postquam insita eis a natura facultas vitalis emortua fuerit, sed cum adhuc eorum a quibus orta sunt vim propriam conservant, latentem quidem illam, sed tamen vivam. » Legatur totum capitulum illud. — (De hominis opificio, cap. xxix, tom. I, col. 234, et seqq.)
Caput 89
[lib.2.cap.89.n.1] CHAPTER LXXXVIII, LXXXIX—Arguments against the Truth of the Conclusion last drawn, with their Solution
For the better understanding of the solutions given, we must prefix some exposition of the order and process of human generation, and of animal generation generally. First then we must know that that is a false opinion of certain persons who say that the vital acts which appear in the embryo before its final development (ante ultimum complementum), come not from any soul or power of soul existing in it, but from the soul of the mother. If that were true, we could no longer call the embryo an animal, as every animal consists of soul and body. The activities of life do not proceed from an active principle from without, but from a power within; a fact which seems to mark the distinction between inanimate and living things, it being proper to the latter to move themselves. Whatever is nourished, assimilates nourishment to itself: hence there must be in the creature that is nourished an active power of nutrition, since an agent acts to the likeness of itself. This is still more manifest in the operations of sense: for sight and hearing are attributable to a power existing in the sentient subject, not in another. Hence, as the embryo is evidently nourished before its final development, and even feels, this cannot be attributed to the soul of another.
It has been alleged that the soul in its complete essence is in the male semen from the first, its activities not appearing merely for want of organs. But that cannot be. For since the soul is united with the body as a form, it is only united with that body of which it is properly the actualisation. Now the soul is the actualisation of an organised body. Therefore before the organisation of the body the soul is in the male semen, not actually, but virtually. Hence Aristotle says that seed and fruit have life potentially in such a way
that they “cast away,” i.e. are destitute of soul; whereas that (body) whereof the soul is the actualisation has life potentially, and does not “cast away” soul.
It would follow, if the soul were in the male semen from the first, that the generation of an animal was only by fissure (per decisionem), as is the case with Annelid animals, that are made two out of one. For if the male semen has a soul the instant it was cut off from the body, it would then have a substantial form. But every substantial generation precedes and does not follow the substantial form. Any transmutations that follow the substantial form are not directed to the being of the thing generated, but to its well-being. At that rate the generation of the animal would be complete in the mere cutting off of the male semen from the body of the parent; and all subsequent transmutations would be irrelevant to generation. The supposition is still more ridiculous when applied to the rational soul, as well because it is impossible for that to be divided according to the division of the body, so as even to be in the semen cut off therefrom; as also because it would follow that in all cases of the semen being wasted, without conception ensuing, souls were still multiplied.
Nor again can it be said, as some say, that though there is not in the male semen at its first cutting off any soul actually, but only virtually, for want of organs, nevertheless, as the said semen is a bodily substance, organisable although not organised, so the active power of that semen is itself a soul, potential but not actual, proportional to the condition of the semen. The theory goes on to say that, as the life of a plant requires fewer organs than the life of an animal, the aforesaid active power turns into a vegetative soul as soon as the semen is sufficiently organised for the life of a plant; and further that, when the organs are more perfected and multiplied, the same power is advanced to be a sentient soul; and further still that, when the form of the organs is perfect, the same becomes a rational soul, not indeed by the action of the power of the semen itself, but only by the influence of some exterior agent: and this the advocates of this theory take to be the reason why Aristotle said (De gen. animal., II, iii) that the intellect is from without.
Upon this view it would follow that numerically the same active power was now a vegetative soul only, and afterwards a sentient soul; and so the substantial form itself was continually more and more perfected: it would further follow that a substantial form was educed from potentiality to actuality, not instantaneously, but successively; and further than generation was a continuous change, as is alteration, — all so many physical impossibilities. There would ensue even a still more awkward consequence, that the rational soul was mortal. For no formal constituent added to a perishable thing makes it naturally imperishable: otherwise the perishable would be changed into the imperishable, which is impossible, as the two differ in kind. But the substance of the sentient soul, which is supposed to be incidentally generated when the body is generated in the process above described, is necessarily perishable with the perishing of the body. If therefore this soul becomes
rational by the bringing in of some manner of light from without to be a formal constituent of the soul, it necessarily follows that the rational soul perishes when the body perishes, contrary to which has been shown (Chap. ) and to the teaching of Catholic faith.
Therefore the active power which is cut off, or emitted, with the male semen from the body, and is called ‘formative,’ is not itself the soul, nor ever becomes the soul in the process of generation. But the frothy substance of the male semen contains gas (spiritus), and this gas is the subject on which the formative power rests, and in which it is inherent. So the formative power works out the formation of the body, acting in virtue of the soul of the father, the prime author of generation, not in virtue of the soul of the offspring, even after the offspring comes to have a soul: for the offspring does not generate itself, but is generated by the father. This is clear by enumeration of the several powers of the soul. The formation is not attributable to the soul of the embryo itself on the score of that soul’s generative power: for that power puts forth no activity till the work of nutrition and growth is complete; and besides, its work is not directed to the perfection of the individual, but to the preservation of the species. Nor can it be assigned to the embryo’s nutritive power, the work of which is to assimilate nourishment to the body nourished; for in this case there is no room for such a work; since nourishment taken while the body is in formation is not applied to assume the likeness of a pre-existent body, but goes to the production of a more perfect form and a nearer approach to the likeness of the father. Nor is the development of the embro attributable to its own power of growth: for to power of growth there does not belong change of form, but only change in bulk. And as for the sensitive and intellectual powers, it is clear that theirs is no office bearing on such a development. It follows that the formation of the body, particularly of its earliest and principal parts, does
not proceed from the engendered soul, nor from any formative power acting in virtue thereof, but from a formative power acting in virtue of the generative soul of the father, the work of which is to make another like in species to the progenitor. This formative power therefore remains the same in the subject aforesaid from the beginning of the formation even to the end. But the appearance of the being under formation does not remain the same: for first it has the appearance of semen, afterwards of blood, and so on until it arrives at its final completeness.
Nor need we be uneasy in admitting the generation of an intermediate product, the existence of which is presently after broken off, because such transitional links are not complete in their species, but are on the way to a perfect species; and therefore they are not engendered to endure, but as stages of being, leading up to finality in the order of generation. The higher a form is in the scale of being, and the further it is removed from a mere material form, the more intermediate forms and intermediate generation must be passed through before the finally perfect form is reached. Therefore in the generation of animal and man, — these having the most perfect form, — there occur many intermediate forms and generations, and consequently destructions, because the generation of one being is the destruction of another. The vegetative soul therefore, which is first in the embryo, while it lives the life of a plant, is destroyed, and there succeeds a more perfect soul, which is at one nutrient and sentient, and for that time the embryo lives the life of an animal: upon the destruction of this, there succeeds the rational soul, infused from without, whereas the preceding two owed their existence to the virtue of the male semen.
With these principles recognised, it is easy to answer the objections.
Arg. 1. Man being an animal by the possession of a sentient soul, and the notion of ‘animal’ befitting man in the same sense as it befits other animals, it appears that the sentient soul of man is of the same kind as the souls of other animals. But things of the same kind have the same manner of coming to be. Therefore the sentient soul of man, as of other animals, comes to be by the active power that is in the male semen. But the sentient and the intelligent soul in man is one in substance (Chap. ). It appears then that even the intelligent soul is produced by the active power of the semen.
Reply. Though sensitive soul in man and brute agree generically, yet they differ specifically. As the animal, man, differs specifically from other animals by being rational, so the sentient soul of a man differs specifically from the sentient soul of a brute by being also intelligent. The soul therefore of a brute has sentient attributes only, and consequently neither its being nor its activity rises above the order of the body: hence it must be generated with the generation of the body, and perish with its destruction. But the sentient soul in man, over and above its sentient nature, has intellectual power: hence the very substance of this soul must be raised above the bodily order both in being and in activity; and therefore it is neither generated by the generation of the body, nor perishes by its destruction.
Arg. 2. As Aristotle teaches, in point of time the foetus is an animal before it is a man. But while it is an animal and not yet a man, it has a sentient and not an intelligent soul, which sentient soul beyond doubt is produced by the active power of the male semen. Now that self-same sentient soul is potentially intelligent, even as that animal is potentially a rational animal: unless one chooses to say that the intelligent soul which supervenes is another substance altogether, a conclusion rejected above (Chap. ). It appears then that the substance of the intelligent soul comes of the active power that is in the semen.
Reply. The sentient soul, whereby the human foetus was an animal, does not last, but its place is taken by a soul that is at once sentient and intelligent.
Arg. 3. The soul, as it is the form of the body, is one being with the body. But unity of thing produced, unity of productive action, and unity of producing agent, all go together. Therefore the one being of soul and body must be the result of one productive action of one productive agent. But confessedly the body is produced by the productive action of the power that is in the male semen. Therefore the soul also, as it is the form of the body, is produced by the same productive action, and not by any separate agency.
Reply. The principle of corresponding unity of produced, production, and producer, holds good to the exclusion of a plurality of productive agents not acting in co-ordination with one another. Where they are co-ordinate, several agents have but one effect. Thus the prime efficient cause acts to the production of the effect of the secondary efficient cause even more vigorously
than the secondary cause itself; and we see that the effect produced by a principal agent through the agency of an instrument is more properly attributed to the principal agent than to the instrument. Sometimes too the action of the principal agent reaches to some part of the thing done, to which the action of the instrument does not reach. Since then the whole active power of nature stands to God as an instrument to the prime and principal agent, we find no difficulty in the productive action of nature being terminated to a part only of that one term of generation, man, and not to the whole of what is produced by the action of God. The body then of man is formed at once by the power of God, the principal and prime agent, and by the power of the semen, the secondary agent. But the action of God produces the human soul, which the power of the male semen cannot produce, but only dispose thereto.
Arg. 4. Man generates his own specific likeness by the power that is in the detached semen, which generation means causing the specific form of the generated. The human soul therefore, the specific form of man, is caused by the power in the semen.
Reply. Man generates his specific likeness, inasmuch as the power of his semen operates to prepare for the coming of the final form which gives the species to man.
Arg. 5. If souls are created by God, He puts the last hand to the engendering of children born sometimes of adultery.
Reply. There is no difficulty in that. Not the nature of adulterers is evil, but their will: now the effect which their semen produces is natural, not voluntary: hence there is no difficulty in God’s co-operating to that effect and giving it completeness.
In a book ascribed to Gregory of Nyssa there are found further arguments, as follows:
Arg. 6. Soul and body make one whole, that is, one man. If then the soul is made before the body, or the body before the soul, the same thing will be prior and posterior to itself. Therefore body and soul are made together. But the body begins in the cutting off, or emission, of the semen. Therefore the soul also is brought into being by the same.
Reply. Allowing that the human body is formed before the soul is created, or conversely, still it does not follow that the same man is prior to himself: for man is not his body or his soul. It only follows that one part of him is prior to another part; and in that there is no difficulty: for matter is prior in time to form, — matter, I mean, inasmuch as it is in potentiality to form, not inasmuch as it is actually perfected by form, for so it is together with form. The human body then, inasmuch as it is in potentiality to soul, as not yet having the soul, is prior in time to the soul: but, for that time, it is not actually human, only potentially so: but when it is actually human, as being perfected by a human soul, it is neither prior nor posterior to the soul, but together with it.
Arg. 7. An agent’s activity seems to be imperfect, when he does not produce and bring the whole thing into being, but only half makes it. If then God brought the soul into being, while the body was formed by the power of the male semen, body and soul being the two parts of man, the activities
of God and of the seminal power would be both imperfect. Therefore the body and soul of man are both produced by the same cause. But certainly the body of man is produced by the power of the semen: therefore also the soul.
Reply. Body and soul are both produced by the power of God, though the formation of the body is of God through the intermediate instrumentality of the power of the natural semen, while the soul He produces immediately. Neither does it follow that the action of the power of the semen is imperfect, since it fulfils the purpose of its existence.
Arg. 8. In all things that are engendered of seed, the parts of the thing engendered are all contained together in the seed, though they do not actually appear: as we see that in wheat or in any other send the green blade and stalk and knots and grains and ears are virtually contained in the original seed; and afterwards the seed gathers bulk and expansion by a process of natural consequence leading to its perfection, without taking up any new feature from without. But the soul is part of man. Therefore in the male semen of man the human soul is virtually contained, and it does not take its origin from any exterior cause.
Reply. In seed are virtually contained all things that do not transcend corporeal power, as grass, stalk, knots, and the like: from which there is no concluding that the special element in man which transcends the whole range of corporeal power is virtually contained in the seed.
Arg. 9. Things that have the same development and the same consummation must have the same first origin. But in the generation of man we find the same development and the same consummation: for as the configuration and growth of the limbs advances, the activities of the soul show themselves more and more: for first appears the activity of the sentient soul, and last of all, when the body is complete, the activity of the intelligent soul. Therefore body and soul have the same origin. But the first origin of the body is in the emission of the male semen: such therefore also is the origin of the soul.
Reply. All that this shows is that a certain arrangement of the parts of the body is necessary for the activity of the soul.
Arg. 10. What is conformed to a thing, is set up according to the plan of that to which it is conformed, as wax takes the impress of a seal. But the body of man and of every animal is conformed to its own soul, having such disposition of organs as suits the activities of the power to be exercised through those organs. The body then is formed by the action of the soul: hence also Aristotle says that the soul is the efficient cause of the body. This could not be, if the soul were not in the male semen: for the body is formed by the power that is in that semen: therefore the soul has its origin in that emission of it.
Reply. That the body is conformed and fashioned according to the soul, and that therefore the soul prepares a body like unto itself, is a statement partly true and partly false. Understood of the soul of the generator, it is true: understood of the soul of the generated, it is false. The formation of the body in its prime and principal parts is not due to the soul of the generated, but to the soul of the generator, as has been shown.
Arg. 11. Nothing lives except by a soul. But the male semen is alive, of which fact there are three indications. In the first place, the semen is cut off
and detached from a living being: secondly, there appears in it vital heat and activity: thirdly, the seeds of plants, committed to earth, could never warm to life from the lifeless earth, had they not life in themselves.
Reply. The semen is not alive actually, but potentially, and has a soul, not actually, but virtually. In the process of generation the embryo comes to have a vegetative and a sentient soul by the virtue of the semen, which souls do not endure, but pass away and are succeeded by a rational soul.
Arg. 12. If the soul is not before the body (Chap. ), nor begins with the liberation of the semen, it follows that the body is first formed, and afterwards there is infused into it a soul newly created. But if this is true, it follows further that the soul is for the body: for what is for another appears after it, as clothes are for men and are made after them. But that is false: rather the body is for he soul, as the end is ever the more noble. We must say then that the origin of the soul is simultaneous with the emission of the semen.
Reply. There are two ways of one thing being ‘for another.’ A thing may be to serve the activity, or secure the preservation, or otherwise promote the good of another, presupposing its being; and such things are posterior to that for which they are, as clothes for the person, or tools for the mechanic. Or a thing may be ‘for another’ in view of that other’s being: what is thus ‘for another’ is prior to it in time and posterior to it in nature. In this latter way the body is for the soul, as all matter is for its form. The case would be otherwise, if soul and body did not make one being, as they say who take the soul not to be the form of the body.
[lib.2.cap.89.n.1] Responsiones ad prædicta 4. Ad faciliorem vero præmissarum rationum solutionem, præmittenda sunt quædam ad exponendum ordinem et processum generationis humanæ, et generaliter animalis. Primo itaque sciendum est falsam esse opinionem quorumdam dicentium quod opera vitæ, quæ apparent in embryone ante ultimum complementum, non sunt ex aliqua anima vel virtute animæ in eo exsistente, sed ex anima matris. Si enim hoc esset verum, jam embryo non esset animal, quum omne animal ex anima et corpore constet. Operationes etiam vitæ non proveniunt a principio activo extrinseco, sed ab intranea virtute; in quo præcipue a non viventibus viventia videntur discerni, quorum est proprium movere seipsa. Quod enim nutritur assimilat sibi nutrimentum; unde oportet in nutrito esse virtutum nutritionis activam, quum agens sibi simile agat; et multo est hoc manifestius in operibus sensus; nam videre et audire convenit alicui per virtutem aliquam in ipso exsistentem, non in alio. Unde, quum embryo inveniatur nutriri ante ultimum complementum et etiam sentire, non potest hoc attribui animæ matris. Nec tamen potest dici quod in semine, ab ipso principio, sit anima secundum suam essentiam completam, cujus tamen operationes non apparent propter organorum defectum. Nam, quum anima uniatur corpori ut forma, non unitur nisi corpori cujus est proprie actus. Est autem anima actus corporis organici. Non est igitur ante organizationem corporis in semine anima actu, sed solum potentia sive virtute. Unde Aristoteles dicit in secundo De anima, c. 1, quod semen et fructus sic sunt potentia vitam habentia quod abjiciunt animam, id est anima carent, quum tamen id cujus anima est actus sit potentia vitam babens, non tamen abjiciens animam. Sequeretur etiam, si a principio anima esset in semine, quod generatio animalis esset solum per decisionem, sicut est, in animalibus annulosis, quod ex uno fiunt duo. Semen enim, si, statim quum est decisum, animam haberet, jam haberet formam substantialem. Omnis autem generatio substantialis præcedit formam substantialem, non eam sequitur; si quæ vero transmutationes formam substantialem sequuntur, non ordinantur ad esse generati, sed ad bene esse ipsius. Sic igitur generatio animalis completerur in ipsa decisione seminis; omnes autem transmutationes sequentes essent ad generationem impertinentes. Sed adhuc magis est ridiculum, si hoc de anima rationali dicatur: tum quia imposibile est ut dividatur secundum divisionem corporis, ad hoc ut in deciso semine esse possit; tum quia sequeretur quod, in omnibus pollutionibus ex quibus conceptus non sequitur, nihilominus rationales animæ multiplicarentur. Neque etiam dici potest (quod quidam dicunt), etsi a principio decisionis in semine non sit anima actu, sed virtute, propter deficientiam organorum, tamen ipsammet virtutem seminis, quod est corpus organizabile, etsi non organizatum, esse proportionaliter semini animam in potentia, sed non actu; et, quia vita plantæ pauciora requirit organa quam vita animalis, primo semine sufficienter ad vitam plantæ organizato, ipsam prædictam virtutem fieri animam vegetabilem; deinde, organis magis perfectis et multiplicatis, eamdem perduci ut sit anima sensitiva; ulterius autem, forma organorum perfecta, eamdem animam fieri rationalem, non quidem per actionem virtutis seminis, sed ex influxu exterioris agentis; propter quod suspicantur Aristotelem dixisse, De generat. animal. II, c. 111, intellectum ab extrinseco esse. Secundum enim hanc positionem, sequeretur quod aliqua virtus eadem numero nunc esset anima vegetabilis tantum et postmodum anima sensitiva, et sic ipsa forma substantialis continue magis ac magis perficeretur; et ulterius sequeretur quod non simul, sed successive, educeretur forma substantialis de potentia in actum; et ulterius quod generatio esset motus continuus, sicut et alteratio; quæ omnia sunt imposibilia in natura. Sequeretur etiam adhuc majus inconveniens, scilicet quod anima rationalis esset mortalis. Nihil enim formaliter alicui rei corruptibili adveniens facit ipsum esse incorruptibile per naturam; alias corruptibile mutaretur in incorruptibile; quod est impossibile, quum differant secundum genus, ut dicitur in decimo Metaphysicorum, c. x. Substantia autem animæ sensibilis, quum ponatur esse per accidens generata a corpore generato in processu prædicto, de necessitate est corruptibilis ad corruptionem corporis. Si igitur ipsamet sit rationalis quodam lumine intrinsecus inducto, quod formaliter se habet ad ipsam (est enim sensitivum), de necessitate sequitur quod anima rationalis, corpore corrupto, corrumpitur; quod est impossibile, ut supra (c. lxxix) probatum est et fides catholica docet. Non igitur ipsamet virtus quæ cum semine deciditur et dicitur formativa, est anima, neque in processu generationis fit anima; sed, quum ipsa fundetur, sicut in proprio subjecto, in spiritu cujus est semen contentivum sicut quoddam spumosum, operatur formationem corporis, prout agit ex vi animæ patris cui attribuitur generatio sicut principali generanti, non ex vi animæ concepti, etiam postquam anima inest; non enim conceptum generat seipsum, sed generatur a patre. Et hoc patet discurrenti per singulas virtutes animæ. Non enim potest attribui animæ embryonis, ratione virtutis generativæ: tum quia vis generativa non habet suam operationem nisi completo opere nutritivæ et augmentativæ quæ ei deserviunt, quum generare sit jam perfecti; tum quia opus generativæ non ordinatur ad perfectionem ipsius individui, sed ad speciei conservationem. Nec etiam potest attribui virtuti nutritivæ, cujus opus est assimilare nutrimentum nutrito, quod hic non apparet; non enim nutrimentum in processu formationis trahitur in similitudinem præxsistentis, sed producitur ad perfectiorem formam et viciniorem similitudini patris. Similiter nec augmentativæ, ad quam non pertinet mutatio secundum formam, sed solum secundum quantitatem. De sensitiva autem et intellectiva, patet quod non habent aliquod opus formationi tali appropriatum. Relinquitur igitur quod formatio corporis, præcipue quantum ad primas et principales partes, non est ab anima genita, nec a virtute formativa agente ex vi ejus, sed agente ex vi animæ generativæ patris, cujus opus est facere simile generati secundum speciem. Hæc igitur vis formativa eadem manet in spiritu prædicto, a principio formationis usque in finem; species tamen formati non manet eadem; nam primo habet formam seminis, postea sanguinis, et sic inde quousque veniat ad ultimum complementum. Licet enim generatio simplicium corporum non procedat secundum ordinem, eo quod quodlibet eorum habet formam immediatam materiae primæ, in generatione tamen corporum aliorum oportet esse generationum ordinem, propter multas formas intermedias inter primam formam elementi et ultimam formam ad quam generatio ordinatur; et ideo sunt multæ generationes et corruptiones sese consequentes. Nec est inconveniens si aliquid intermediorum generatur, et statim postmodum interrumpitur, quia intermedia non habent speciem completam, sed sunt ut via ad speciem; et ideo non generantur ut permaneant, sed ut per ea ad ultimum generatum perveniatur. Nec est mirum si tota generationis transmutatio non est continua, sed sunt multæ generationes intermediæ, quia hoc etiam accidit in alteratione et augmento; non enim est tota alteratio continua neque totum augmentum, sed solum motus localis est vere continuus, ut patet in octavo Physicorum, c. vii, viii et ix. Quanto igitur aliqua forma est nobiliar et magis distans a forma elementi, tanto oportet esse plures formas intermedias quibus gradatim ad formam ultimam veniatur, et per consequens plures generationes medias; et ideo in generatione animalis et hominis, in quibus est forma perfectissima, sunt plurimæ formæ et generationes intermediæ, et per consequens corruptiones, quia generatio unius est corruptio alterius. Anima igitur vegetabilis, quæ primo inest quum embryo vivit vita plantæ, corrumpitur, et succeedit anima perfection quæ est nutritiva et sensitiva simul, et tunc embryo vivit vita animalis; hac autem corrupta, succeedit anima rationalis ab extrinseco immissa, licet pracedentes fuerint virtute seminis. His igitur visis, facile est respondere ad objecta. Quod enim primo objicitur, oportere animam sensitivam eumdem modum originis in homine et in brutis habere, ex eo quod animal de eis univoce prædicatur, dicimus hoc necessarium non esse. Etsi enim anima sensitiva in homine et bruto conveniant secundum generis rationem, differunt tamen specie, sicut et ea quorum sunt formæ; sicut enim animal quod est homo ab aliis animalibus specie differt per hoc quod est rationale, ita anima sensitiva hominis ab anima sensitiva bruti specie differt per hoc quod est etiam intellectiva. Anima igitur in bruto habet id quod est sensitivum tantum, et per consequens nec esse nec ejus operatio supra corpus elevatur; unde oportet quod simul cum generatione corporis generetur et cum corruptione corrumpatur. Anima autem sensitiva in homine, quum habeat supra sensitivam naturam vim intellectivam, ex qua oportet quod ipsa substantia animæ sit secundum esse et operationem supra corpus elevata, neque per generatione corporis generatur neque per ejus corruptionem corrumpitur. Diversus ergo modus originis in animabus prædictis non est ex parte sensitivi, ex quo sumitur ratio generis, sed ex parte intellectivi, ex quo sumitur differentia speciei; unde non potest concludi diversitas generis, sed sola diversitas speciei. Quod vero secundo objicitur, conceptum prius esse animal quam hominem, non ostendit rationalem animam cum semine propagari. Nam anima sensitiva, per quam animal erat, non manet, sed ei succedit anima quæ est simul sensitiva et intellectiva, ex qua est animal et homo simul, ut ex dictis patet. Quod vero tertio objicitur, diversorum agentium actiones non terminari ad unum factum, intelligendum est de diversis agentibus non ordinatis. Si enim ordinata sint ad invicem, oportet eorum esse unum effectum; nam causa agens prima agit in effectum causæ secundæ agentis, vehementius quam etiam ipsa causa secunda; unde videmus quod effectus qui per instrumentum agitur a principali agente, magis proprie attribuitur principali agenti quam instrumento. Contingit autem quando quod actio principalis agentis pertingit ad aliquid in operato, ad quod non pertingit actio instrumenti; sicut vis vegetativa ad speciem carnis perducit, ad quam non potest perducere calor ignis qui est ejus instrumentum, licet operetur disponendo ad eam, resolvendo et consumendo. Quum igitur omnis virtus naturæ activa comparetur ad Deum sicut instrumentum ad primum et principale agens, nihil prohibet, in uno et eodem generato quod est homo, actionem naturæ ad aliquid hominis terminari, et non ad totum quod fit actione Dei. Corpus igitur hominis formatur simul et virtute Dei quasi principalis agentis et primi, et etiam virtute seminis quasi agentis secundi; sed actio Dei producit animam humanam, quam virtus seminis producere non potest, sed disponit ad eam. Unde patet solutio ad quartum. Sic enim homo simile in specie generat, in quantum virtus seminis ejus dispositive operatur ad ultimam formam, ex qua homo speciem sortitur. Deum vero adulteris cooperari in actione naturæ, nihil est inconveniens. Non enim natura adulterorum mala est, sed voluntas; actio autem quæ est ex virtute seminis ipsorum est naturalis, non voluntaria; unde non est inconveniens si Deus illi operationi cooperatur, ultimam perfectionem inducendo. Quod vero sexto objicitur, patet quod non de necessitate concludit. Etsi enim detur quod corpus hominis formetur priusquam anima creetur, aut e converso, non sequitur quod idem homo sit prior seipso; non enim homo est suum corpus neque sua anima. Sequitur autem quod aliqua pars ejus sit altera prior, quod non est inconveniens; nam materia tempore est prior forma; materiam dico, secundum quod est in potentia ad formam, non secundum quod actu est per formam perfecta; sic enim est simul cum forma. Corpus igitur humanum, secundum quod est in potentia ad animam, utpote quod nondum habet animam, est prius tempore quam anima; tunc autem non est humanum actu, sed potentia tantum; quum vero est humanum actu, quasi per animam humanam perfectum, non est prius neque posterius anima, sed simul cum eo. Neque etiam sequitur, si anima ex virtute seminis non producitur, sed solum corpus, quod sit imperfecta operatio tam Dei quam naturæ, ut septima ratio procedebat. Virtute enim Dei utrumque fit, et corpus et anima, licet formatio corporis sit ab eo mediate virtute seminis naturalis, animam autem immediate producat. Neque etiam sequitur quod actio virtutis seminis sit imperfecta, quum perficiat hoc ad quod est. Sciendum est etiam in semine virtute contineri omnia illa quæ virtutem corpoream non excedunt, sicut fœnum, culmus, internodia et similia; ex quo concludi non potest quod id hominis quod totam virtutem corpoream excedit, in semine virtute contineatur, ut octava ratio concludebat. Quod autem operationes animæ videntur proficere in processu generationis humanæ sicut proficiunt corporis partes, non ostendit animam humanam et corpus idem principium habere, sicut nona ratio procedebat; sed ostendit quod dispositio partium corporis est necessaria ad animæ operationem. Quod autem decimo objicitur, corpus animæ configurari et ob hoc animam sibi corpus simile præparare, partim quidem est verum, partim autem falsum. Si enim intelligatur de anima generantis, est verum quod dicitur; falsum autem, si intelligatur de anima generati. Non enim virtute animæ generati formatur corpus quantum ad primas et præcipuas partes, sed virtute animæ generantis, ut supra probatum est. Similiter etiam omnis materia suæ formæ configuratur; non tamen hæc configuratio fit ex actione generati, sed ex actione formæ generantis. Quod autem undecimo objicitur de seminis vita in principio decisionis, patet quidem ex dictis non esse vivum nisi in potentia; unde tunc animam actu non habet, sed virtute. In processu autem generationis habet animam vegetabilem et sensibilem, ex virtute seminis; quæ non manent, sed transeunt, anima rationali succedente. Neque etiam, si formatio corporis animam humanam præcedit, sequitur quod anima sit propter corpus, ut duodecima ratio inferebat. Est enim aliquid propter alterum dupliciter: Uno propter ejus operationem sive conservationem vel quidquid hujusmodi est quod sequitur ad esse, et hujusmodi sunt posteriora eo propter quod sunt, sicut vestimenta sunt propter hominem, et instrumenta propter artificem; alio modo est aliquid propter alterum, id est propter esse ejus, et sic quod est propter alterum est prius tempore et natura posterius. Hoc autem modo corpus est propter animam, sicut etiam omnis materia propter formam. Secus autem esset, si ex anima et corpore non fieret unum secundum esse, sicut dicunt qui ponunt animam non esse corporis formam.
Caput 91
[lib.2.cap.91.n.1] CHAPTER XCI—That there are Subsistent Intelligences not united with Bodies
WHEN human bodies perish in death, the substance of the intelligence remains in perpetuity (Chap. ). Now if the substance of the intelligence that remains is one for all, as some say, it follows necessarily that it has being apart from body; and thus our thesis is proved, that some subsistent intelligence exists apart from a body. But if a multitude of intelligent souls remain after the destruction of their bodies, then some subsistent intelligences will have the property of subsisting without bodies, all the more inasmuch as it has been shown that souls do not pass from one body to another (Chap ). But the property of subsisting apart from bodies is an incidental property in souls, since naturally they are the forms of bodies. But what is ordinary must be prior to what is incidental. There must then be some subsistent intelligences naturally prior to souls; and to these intelligences the ordinary property must attach of subsisting without bodies.
3. The higher nature in its lowest manifestation touches the next lower nature in its highest. But intelligent nature is higher than corporeal, and at the same time touches it in some part, which is the intelligent soul. As then the body perfected by the intelligent soul is highest in the genus of bodies,
so the intelligent soul united to the body must be lowest in the genus of subsistent intelligences. There are then subsistent intelligences not united with bodies, superior in the order of nature to the soul.
7. The substance of a thing must be proportionate to its activity, because activity is the actualisation and perfection of an active substance. But understanding is the proper activity of an intelligent substance. Therefore an intelligent substance must be competent for such activity. But understanding is an activity not exercised through any bodily organ, and not needing the body except in so far as objects of understanding are borrowed from objects of sense. But that is an imperfect mode of understanding: the perfect mode of understanding is the understanding of those objects which are in themselves intelligible: whereas it is an imperfect mode of understanding when those things only are understood, which are not of themselves intelligible, but are rendered intelligible by intellect. If then before everything imperfect there must be something perfect in that kind, there must be antecedently to human souls, which understand what they gather from phantasms, sundry subsistent intelligences which understand things in themselves intelligible, not gathering their knowledge from sensible objects, and therefore in their nature separate from anything corporeal.
[lib.2.cap.91.n.1] Quod sunt aliquæ substantiae intellectuales corporibus non unitæ. Ex præmissis autem ostendi potest esse aliquas substantias intellectuales corporibus penitus non unitas 1. Ostensum est enim supra (c. Lxxix), corporibus corruptis, intellectus substantiam quasi perpetuam remanere. Et, si quidem substantia intellectus quæ remanet sit una omnium, sicut quidam dicunt, de necesssitate consequitur eam esse secundum suum esse a corpore separatam; et sic habetur propositum quod substantia intellectualis aliqua sine corpore subsistat. Si autem plures animæ intellectivæ remaneant, corporibus destructis, conveniet aliquibus substantiis intellectualibus absque corpore subsistere, præsertim quum ostensum sit (c. Lxxxiii) quod animæ non transeant de corpore ad corpus. Convenit autem animabus esse a corporibus separatas per accidens, quum naturaliter sint formæ corporum; eo autem quod est per accidens, oportet prius esse id quod est per se. Sunt igitur aliquæ substantiae intellectuales animabus secundum naturam priores, quibus per se inest sine corporibus subsistere. 2. Amplius, Omne quod est de ratione generis oportet de ratione speciei esse; sunt autem quædam quæ sunt de ratione speciei, non autem de ratione generis, sicut rationale est de ratione hominis, non autem de ratione animalis. Quidquid autem est de ratione speciei, non autem de ratione generis, non est necesse omnibus speciebus generis inesse; multæ enim species sunt irrationalium animalium. Substantiæ autem intellectuali secundum suum genus convenit quod sit per se subsistens, quum habeat per se operationem, sicut superius (c. L et LI) est ostensum; de ratione autem rei per se subsistentis non est quod alteri uniatur. Non est igitur de ratione substantiae intellectualis secundum suum genus quod sit corpori unita, etsi sit hoc de ratione alicujus intellectualis substantiae, quæ est anima. Sunt igitur aliquæ substantiae intellectuales corporibus non unitæ. 3. Adhuc, natura superior in suo infimo contingit naturam inferiorem in ejus supremo. Natura autem intellectualis est superior corporali; contingit autem eam secundum aliquam partem sui, quæ est anima intellectiva. Oportet igitur quod, sicut corpus perfectum per animam intellectivam est supremum in genere corporum, ita anima intellectiva quæ uni-tur corpori sit infima in genere substantiarum intellectualium. Sunt igitur aliquæ substantiae intellectuales non uni-tur corporibus, superiores secundum naturæ ordinem anima. 4. Item, Si est aliquid imperfectum in aliquo genere, invenitur ante illud, secundum naturæ ordinem, aliquid in genere illo perfectum; perfectum enim natura prius est imperfecto. Formæ autem quæ sunt in materiis sunt actus imperfecti, quia non habent esse completum. Sunt igitur aliquæ formæ quæ sunt actus completi per se subsistentes et speciem completam habentes. Omnis autem forma per se subsistens absque materia, est substantia intellectualis; immunitas autem materiae confert esse intelligibile, ut ex præmissis (c. li) patet. Sunt ergo aliquæ substantia intellectuales corporibus non unitæ; omne autem corpus materiam habet. 5. Amplius, Substantia potest esse sine quantitate, licet quantitas sine substantia esse non possit; substantia enim aliorum generum prima est tempore, ratione et cognitione. Sed nulla substantia corporea est sine quantitate. Possunt igitur quædam esse in genere substantia omnino absque corpore. Omnes autem naturæ possibiles in rerum ordine inveniuntur; aliter enim esset universum imperfectum; in sempiternis etiam non differt esse et posse. Sunt igitur aliquæ substantia absque corporibus subsistentes post primam substantiam, quæ Deus est, quæ non est in genere, ut supra (l. I, c. xxv) ostensum est, et supra animam, quæ est corpori unita. 6. Adhuc, Si ex aliquibus duobus invenitur aliquod compositum et alterum eorum invenitur per se quod est minus perfectum, et alterum, quod est magis perfectum et minus reliquo indigens, per se invenitur. Invenitur autem aliqua substantia composita ex substantia intellectuali et corpore, ut ex præmissis (c. lxviii) patet; corpus autem invenitur per se, sicut patet in omnibus corporibus inanimatis. Multo igitur fortius inveniuntur substantia intellectuales corporibus non unitæ. 7. Item, substantiam rei oportet esse proportionatam suæ operationi, quia operatio est actus et bonum substantia operantis. Sed intelligere est propria operatio substantia intellectualis. Oportet igitur substantiam intellectualem talem esse quæ competat prædictæ operationi. Intelligere autem, quum sit operatio per organum corporeum non exercita, non indiget corpore, nisi in quantum intelligibilia sumuntur a sensibilibus.
Caput 93
[lib.2.cap.93.n.1] CHAPTER XCIII—That Intelligences subsisting apart are not more than one in the same Species
INTELLIGENCES subsisting apart are subsistent essences. Now the definition of a thing being the mark of its essence, is the mark of its species. Subsistent essences therefore are subsistent species.
2. Difference in point of form begets difference of species, while difference in point of matter begets difference in number. But intelligences subsisting apart have nothing whatever of matter about them. Therefore it is impossible for them to be several in one species.
4. The multiplication of species adds more nobility and perfection to the universe than the multiplication of individuals in the same species. But the perfection of the universe consists principally in intelligences subsisting apart. Therefore it makes more for the perfection of the universe that there should be many intelligences different in species than many different in number in the same species.
[lib.2.cap.93.n.1] Quod substantiae separatæ non sunt multæ unius speciei. (I, q. L, a. iv; II, D. iii, a. iv.) Ex his autem, quæ de istis substantiiis præmissa sunt, ostendi potest quod non sunt plures substantiae separatæ unius speciei. 1. Ostensum est enim supra (c. LI) quod substantiae separatæ sunt quædam quidditates subsistentes. Species autem rei est quam signat diffinitio, quæ est signum quidditatis rei; unde quidditates subsistentes sunt species subsistentes. Plures ergo substantiae separatæ esse non possunt, nisi sint plures species. 2. Adhuc, Quæcumque sunt idem specie, differentia autem numero, habent materiam. Differentia autem quæ ex forma procedit inducit diversitatem speciei; quæ autem est ex materia inducit diversitatem secundum numerum; substantiae autem separatæ non habent omnino materiam, neque quæ sit pars earum, neque cui uniantur ut formæ. Impossibile est igitur quod sint plures unius speciei. 3. Amplius, Ad hoc sunt plura individua in una specie in rebus corruptibilibus, ut natura speciei quæ non potest perpetuo conservari in uno individuo conservetur in pluribus; unde, etiam in corporibus incorruptibilibus, non est nisi unum individuum in una specie. Substantiæ autem separatæ natura potest conservari in uno individuo, eo quod sunt incorruptibles, ut supra (c. LV) ostensum est. Non igitur oportet esse plura individua, in illis substantiiis, ejusdem speciei. (Ex translat. Johan. Scoti.) « Multi sunt beati supermundanarum mentium exercitus, qui infirmam et contractam materialium nostrorum numerorum rationem penitus exceedunt. » (Ex translat. Balthaz. Corderii, apud Migne, op. S. Dionysii areop. t. I, col. 322, De cælesti hierarchia, cap. xiv, §. i.) 4. Item, Id quod est speciei in uno quoque dignius est eo quod est individuationis principium praeter rationem speciei existens; multiplicatio igitur specierum plus addit nobilitatis et perfectionis universo quam multiplicatio individuorum in una specie. Perfectio autem universi maxime consistit in substantiis separatis. Magis igitur competit ad perfectionem universi quod sint plures secundum speciem diversæ quam quod sint multæ secundum numerum in eadem specie. 5. Præterea, Substantiæ separatæ sunt « Licet sol non possit multiplicari propter defectum materiæ, quia forma solis totam ejus materiam occupavit, tamen formæ solis, eo quod materialis est, non repugnat ut multiplicetur in diversis numero, si Deus vellet. Sed angelus et anima, cum sint plures formæ, non posset Deus, sicut dicunt quidam, facere quod different aliter quam differentia formali. Forma enim per se existens non multiplicatur nisi differentia formali; sed forma materialis secundum divisionem materiæ potest multiplicari. Sed tunc relinquitur difficultas de distinctione animarum separatarum. Ideo dicendum quod anima, cum sit infima in genere intellectualium, habet gradum alium ab angelis. Diversitas autem graduum in formis quæ sunt substantiæ variat speciem, sicut unitas in numeris. Differentia autem specifica sumitur secundum diversum gradum actualitatis et potentialitatis. Plus enim est actualitatis et minus potentialitatis in angelo quam in anima; ratione cujus potentialitatis anima potest uniri corpori, non angelus. Ex hoc ergo quod anima accipit esse in corpore, secundum multitudinem corporum multiplicantur animæ, quo modo angeli multiplicari non possunt. Sed ex hoc videtur quod si natura angelica non possit multiplicari in plura individua, quod ipsa sit de se singularitas quædam, et ad suppositum determinata, et sic non differret in ea suppositum et natura sive quod est et quo est, quod tamen solum dicitur Deo convenire, quod scilicet in eo nulla est compositio ex supposito et natura. Si vero subtiliter dicatur quod omnis natura sive forma vel essentia de se multiplicabilis est, sed non semper potest multiplicari in effectu, utpote forma solis quæ materialis est, potest multiplicari quantum est de se, quia totam suam materiam occupat nec potest esse nisi in materia, ideo propter defectum materiæ non potest multiplicari in actu, ita etiam natura angelica spectata quantum est de se multiplicabilis est; sed quia diversitas secundum numerum aliquorum non potest esse nisi per quantitatem, talis autem forma non est nata recipi in materia quanta, ideo propter defectum distinguis non potest multiplicari, nec in diversis numero sic distingui. Sed quia inconveniens videtur quod aliquid de se sit multiplicabile, et non possit multiplicari virtute alicujus agentis, ideo dicendum quod omnis forma vel natura creata multiplicabilis et plurificabilis est de se, et potest virtute agentis multiplicari. Unde sub una specie potest multos angelos efficere qui non different ad invicem propter diversas partes materiæ, sed secundum quod diversis actionibus sive productionibus ab efficiente producuntur in perfectiores quam corpora cælestia. Sed in corporibus cælestibus, propter eorum perfectionem, non invenitur nisi unum individuum unius speciei, tum quia unumquodque eorum constat ex tota materia suæ speciei, tum quia in uno individuo est perfecte virtus speciei ad complendum illud in universo ad quod sua species ordinatur, sicut præcipue patet in sole et luna. Multo igitur magis in substantiis separatis non invenitur nisi unum individuum in una specie. Respondeo: Plures angelos fieri in eadem specie per divinam potentiam contradictionem non includit, quia cum res per suam essentiam sit hæc et non alia; per id autem per quod res est hæc et non alia distinguitur una res ab alia: etsi in angelis non sit materia, si Deus faceret alium angelum in una specie cum alio angelo in illa specie existente, posset dari quo sufficienter distinguerent quia se ipsis (sic). Substantia enim non individuatur per aliquam dispositionem superadditam essentia suæ, sed se ipsa, in quantum essentia sua est indivisibilis (sic) in plures substantias quarum qualibet salvetur tota. Item cum secundum Philosophum non solum forma est natura, sed etiam materia; illa sunt rei naturalia quæ conveniunt ei ratione materiæ vel ratione formæ, accidentium autem inseparabilium ab individuo ut habitualiter quædam insunt ipsi ratione materiæ, ut nigredo Æthiopis et cicatrices vulnerum; quædam ratione formæ, ut spes, gaudium et potentia videndi. etc. Si ergo in angelis sit materia, potest esse inæqualitas inter duos angelos ejusdem speciei ratione proprietatum naturalium contingentium individuum ratione materiæ, salva indentitate speciei, quia diversæ proprietates contingentes individuum ratione materiæ non requirunt diversitatem substantialem formæ complentem. Hoc idem etiam potest dici si in angelo non sit materia, quia ipsa forma angeli est possibilis respectu influentiae primi principii. Sicut ergo materia quæ non est nobilior in uno quam in alio, ex hoc quod aliter passa est ab agente in uno quam in alio, causantur diversæ proprietates naturales in diversis individuis, prout unus homo est melancolicus; alius colericus, etc., ita etiam quamvis duæ formæ angelicæ essent æquales inter se in essentia, tamen sub ratione qua utraque esset possibilis respectu primi principii, in quantum diversimode possent pati ab ipso, possent in eis creari diversæ proprietates naturales, naturales quidem ipsis individuis. Posset ergo Deus naturalem possibilitatem unius formæ ad aliqua accidentia reducere perfectius ad actum in uno quam in alio, et sic posset Deus angelos ejusdem speciei facere in proprietatibus naturalibus inæquales. » (Ex cod. G. de F.)
Caput 94
[lib.2.cap.94.n.1] CHAPTER XCIV—That an Intelligence subsisting apart and a Soul are not of one Species
A DIFFERENT type of being makes a different species. But the being of the human soul and of an intelligence subsisting apart is not of one type: the body can have no share in the being of a separately subsisting intelligence, as it can have in the being of the human soul, united with the body as form with matter.
3. What makes a species by itself cannot be of the same species with that which does not make a species by itself, but is part of a species. Now a separately subsisting intelligence makes a species by itself, but a soul not, it is part of the human species.
4. The species of a thing may be gathered from the activity proper to it: for activity shows power, and that is an indication of essence. Now the proper activity of a separately subsisting intelligence and of an intelligent soul is understanding. But the mode of understanding of a separately subsisting intelligence is quite different from that of the soul. The soul understands by taking from phantasms: not so the separately subsisting intelligence, that has no bodily organs in which phantasms should be.
[lib.2.cap.94.n.1] Quod substantia separata et anima non sunt unius speciei. (II, D. iii, a. vi.) Ex his autem ulterius ostenditur quod anima non est ejusdem speciei cum substantiis separatis. 1. Major enim est differentia animæ humanæ a substantia separata quam unius substantiæ separatæ ab alia. Sed substantiæ separatæ omnes ad invicem specie differunt, ut ostensum est (c. xciii). Multo igitur magis substantia separata ab anima. 2. Amplius, Unaquæque res habet proprium esse secundum rationem suæ speciei; quorum enim est diversa ratio essendi, horum est diversa species. Esse autem animæ humanæ et substantia separatæ non est unius rationis; nam in esse substantiæ separatæ non potest communicare corpus sicut potest communicare in esse animæ humanæ, quæ secundum esse unitur corpori ut forma materiae. Anima igitur humana differt specie a substantiis separatis. 3. Adhuc, Quod habet secundum seipsum speciem non potest esse ejusdem speciei cum eo quod non habet secundum se speciem, sed est pars speciei. Substantia autem separata habet per seipsam speciem; anima autem non, sed est pars speciei humanæ. Impossibile est igitur quod anima sit ejusdem speciei cum substantiis separatis, nisi forte homo esset ejusdem speciei cum illis; quod patet esse impossibile. 4. Præterea, Ex propria operatione rei percipitur species ejus; operatio enim demonstrat virtutem, quæ indicat essentiam. Propria autem operatio substantia separatæ et animæ intellectivæ est intelligere; est autem omnino alius modus intelligendi substantia separatæ et animæ; nam anima intelligit a phantasmatibus accipiendo, non autem substantia separata, quum non habeat organa corporea in quibus oportet esse phantasmata. Non sunt igitur anima humana et substantia separata unius speciei.
Caput 96
[lib.2.cap.96.n.1] CHAPTER XCVI—That Intelligences subsisting apart do not gather their Knowledge from Objects of Sense
A HIGHER power must have a higher object. But the intellectual power of a separately subsisting intelligence is higher than the intellectual power of the human soul, the latter being lowest in the order of intelligences (Chap. ). Now the object of the intelligence of the human soul is a phantasm (Chap. ), which is higher in the order of objects than the sensible thing existing outside and apart from the soul. The object therefore of a separately subsisting intelligence cannot be an objective reality (res) existing outside the soul, as though it could get knowledge immediately from that; nor can it be a phantasm: it must then be something higher than a phantasm. But nothing is higher than a phantasm in the order of knowable objects except that which is an actual term of intelligence. Intelligences subsisting apart therefore do not gather their intellectual knowledge from objects of sense, but understand objects which are of themselves terms of intelligence.
3. According to the order of intelligences is the order of terms of intelligence. But objects that are of themselves terms of intelligence are higher in order than objects that are terms of intelligence only because we make them so. Of this latter sort are all terms of intelligence borrowed from sensible things: for sensible things are not of themselves intelligible: yet these sensible things are the sort of intelligible things that our intellect understands. A separately subsisting intelligence therefore, being superior to our intelligence, does not understand the intellectual aspects of things by gathering
them from objects of sense: it seizes upon those aspects as they are in themselves.
4. The manner of activity proper to a thing corresponds to the manner and nature of its substance. But an intelligence subsisting apart is by itself, away from any body. Therefore its intellectual activity will be conversant with objects not based upon anything corporeal.
From these considerations it appears that in intelligences subsisting apart there is no such thing as active and potential intellect, except perchance by an improper use of those terms. The reason why potential and active intellect are found in our intelligent soul is because it has to gather intellectual knowledge from sensible things: for the active intellect it is that turns the impressions, gathered from sensible things, into terms of intellect: while the potential intellect is in potentiality to the knowledge of all forms of sensible things. Since then separately subsisting intellects do not gather their knowledge from sensible things, there is in them no active and potential intellect.
Nor again can distance in place hinder the knowledge of a disembodied soul (animae separatae). Distance in place ordinarily affects sense, not intellect, except incidentally, where intellect has to gather its data from sense. For while there is a definite law of distance according to which sensible objects affect sense, terms of intellect, as they impress the intellect, are not in place, but are separate from bodily matter. Since then separately subsistent intelligences do not gather their intellectual knowledge from sensible things, distance in place has no effect upon their knowledge.
Plainly too neither is time mingled with the intellectual activity of such beings. Terms of intellect are as independent of time as they are of place. Time follows upon local motion, and measures such things only as are in some manner placed in space; and therefore the understanding of a separately subsisting intelligence is above time. On the other hand, time is a condition of our intellectual activity, since we receive knowledge from phantasms that regard a fixed time. Hence to its judgements affirmative and negative our intelligence always appends a fixed time, except when it understands the essence of a thing. It understands essence by abstracting terms of understanding from the conditions of sensible things: hence in that operation it understands irrespectively of time and other conditions of sensible things. But it judges affirmatively and negatively by applying forms of understanding, the results of previous abstraction, to things, and in this application time is necessarily understood as entering into the combination.
[lib.2.cap.96.n.1] Quod substantiæ separatæ non accipiunt cognitionem ex sensibilibus. (I, q. lv, a. ii.) Ex præmissis ostendi potest quod substantiæ separatæ non accipiunt intellectivam cognitionem ex rebus sensibilibus. 4. Sensibilia enim, secundum suam naturam, nata sunt apprehendi per sen-hominis, et ita ratione communis et abstracti per intellectum et indeterminati atque determinabiliis, licet non per materiam, tamen per esse in subposito, quia non est subpositum nisi per determinationem aliquam, et oportet quod esse essentiae angeli simpliciter et hujus angeli non sint omnino idem, sed sit differentia secundum rationem determinati et indeterminati; quam quidem determinationem habet forma vel natura effective a producente ipsam in existentia actuali, quia non terminatur actus productionis ad essentiam rei simpliciter ut est essentia sub ratione indeterminati, sed solum ut est hæc essentia, quia omnis actus et operatio est circa singularia. Formaliter autem habet determinationem in hoc subposito, quia in ipso est secundum hoc esse proprium huic subposito; et sic posita, ejus individuatio est effectiva per producentem et formaliter per hoc esse determinatum in subposito formaliter determinans ipsam formam specificam ad subpositum; et sic oportet dicere quod aliud est esse simpliciter, et hujusmodi esse, et essentia, et hæc essentia in omni creatura in subposito subsistente, quia essentia simpliciter, propter sui omnimodam indeterminationem est in potentia ad quemlibet esse determinatum. » (Ex cod. G. de F.) sum, sicut intelligibilia per intellectum; omnis igitur substantia cognoscitiva, ex sensibilibus cognitionem accipiens, habet cognitionem sensitivam, et per consequens, habet corpus naturaliter unitum, quum cognitio sensitiva sine organo corporeo esse non possit. Substantiæ autem separatæ non habent corpora naturaliter sibi unita, ut superius (c. xci) est ostensum. Non igitur intellectivam cognitionem ex rebus sensibilibus sumunt. 2. Amplius, Altioris virtutis oportet esse altius objectum. Virtus autem intellectiva substantia separatæ est altior quam vis intellectiva animæ humanæ, quum intellectus animæ humanæ sit infimus in ordine intellectuum, ut ex præmissis (c. lxxviii) habetur. Intellectus autem humanæ animæ objectum est phantasma, ut supra (c. lx) dictum est, quod est superius in ordine objectorum quam res sensibilis extra animam existens, sicut ex ordine virtutum cognitivarum apparet. Objectum igitur substantia separatæ non potest esse res existens extra animam ut ab ea immediate accipiat cognitionem, neque phantasma; relinquitur igitur quod objectum intellectus substantia separatæ sit aliquid altius phantasmate. Nihil autem est altius phantasmate in ordine objectorum cognoscibilium, nisi id quod est intelligibile actu. Substantiæ igitur separatæ non accipiunt cognitionem intellectivam a sensibilibus, sed intelligunt ea quæ sunt per seipsa etiam intelligibilia. 3. Adhuc, Secundum ordinem intellectuum est ordo intelligibilium. Sed ea quæ sunt secundum seipsa intelligibilia sunt superiora, in ordine intelligibilium, his quæ non sunt intelligibilia nisi quia nos facimus ea intelligibilia; ejusmodi autem oportet esse omnia intelligibilia a sensibilibus accepta; nam sensibilia non sunt secundum se intelligibilia; hujusmodi autem intelligibilia sunt quæ intelligit intellectus noter. Intellectus igitur substantia separatæ, quum sit superior intellectu nostro, non intelligit intelligibilia a sensibilibus accepta, sed quæ sunt secundum se intelligibilia actu. 4. Amplius, Modus operationis propria alicujus rei proportionaliter respondet modo substantia et naturæ ipsius. Substantia autem separata est intellectus per se existens, non in corpore aliquo. Operatio igitur intellectualis ejus erit intelligibilium quæ non sunt fundata in aliquo corpore. Omnia autem intelligibilia a sensibilibus accepta, sunt in aliquibus corporibus aliqualiter fundata, sicut intelligibilia nostra in phantasmatibus, quæ sunt in organis corporeis. Substantiæ igitur separatæ non accipiunt cognitionem ex sensibilibus. 5. Adhuc, Sicut materia prima est infimum in ordine rerum sensibilium et per hoc est in potentia tantum ad omnes formas sensibilies, ita intellectus possibilis, infimus in ordine intelligibilium existens, est in potentia ad omnia intelligibilia, ut ex præmissis (c. lix) patet. Sed ea quæ sunt in ordine sensibilium supra materiam primam, habent in actu suam formam per quam constituuntur in esse sensibilii. Substantiæ igitur separatæ, quæ sunt in ordine intelligibilium supra intellectum possibile humanum, sunt actu in esse intelligibilii; intellectus enim accipiens cognitionem a sensibilibus, non est actu in esse intelligibilii, sed in potentia. Substantia igitur separata non accipit cognitionem a sensibilibus. 6. Adhuc, Perfectio naturæ superioris non dependet a natura inferiori. Perfectio autem substantia separatæ, quum sit intellectualis, est in intelligendo. Earum igitur intelligere non dependet a rebus sensibilibus sic quod ab eis cognitionem accipiant. Patet autem ex hoc quod, in substantiiis separatis, non est intellectus agens et possibilis, nisi forte æquivoce. Intellectus enim possibilis et agens in anima intellectiva inveniuntur, propter hoc quod accipit cognitionem intellectivam a sensibilibus; nam intellectus agens est qui facit species, a sensibilibus acceptas, esse intelligibiles; intellectus autem possibilis est in potentia ad omnes formas sensibilium cognoscendas. Quum igitur substantia separatæ non accipiant cognitionem a sensibilibus, non est in eis intellectus agens et possibilis. Unde et Aristoteles, De anima, III, c. v, intellectum possibile et agentem inducens, dicit eos in anima oportere poni. Item manifestum est, in eisdem, quod A, B, sed post abrasionem alterius vocabuli inscriptum. localis distantia cognitionem animæ separatæ impedire non potest. Localis enim distantia per se comparatur ad sensum, non autem ad intellectum, nisi per accidens, in quantum a sensu accipit; nam sensibilia secundum determinatam distantiam movent sensum; intelligibilia autem actu, secundum quod movent intellectum, non sunt in loco, quum sint a materia corporali separata. Quum igitur substantiae separatæ non accipiant intellectivam cognitionem a sensibilibus, in eorum cognitionem distantia localis nihil operatur. Palam est etiam quod intellectuali operationi eorum non admiscetur tempus. Sicut enim intelligibilia actu sunt absque loco, ita etiam sunt absque tempore; nam tempus consequitur motum localem, unde non mensurat nisi ea quæ aliqualiter sunt in loco. Et ideo intelligere substantiae separatæ est supra tempus. Operationi autem intellectuali nostræ adjacet tempus, ex eo quod a phantasmatibus cognitionem accipimus, quæ determinatum respiciunt tempus; et inde est quod, in compositione et divisione, semper noster intellectus adjungit tempus præteritum vel futurum, non autem intelligendo « quod quid est »; intelligit enim « quod quid est » abstrahendo intelligibilia a sensibilium conditionibus; unde, secundum illam operationem, neque sub tempore neque sub aliqua conditione sensibilium rerum intelligibile comprehendit; componit autem aut dividit applicando intelligibilia prius abstracta ad res, et in hac applicatione necesse est cointelligi tempus.
Caput 97
[lib.2.cap.97.n.1] CHAPTER XCVII—That the Mind of an Intelligence subsisting apart is ever in the act of understanding
What is sometimes in actuality, sometimes in potentiality, is measured by time. But the mind of an intelligence subsisting apart is above time (Chap. ). Therefore it is not at times in the act of understanding and at times not.
2. Every living substance has by its nature some actual vital activity always going on in it, although other activities are potential: thus animals are always repairing waste by assimilation of nourishment, though they do not always feel. But separately subsisting intelligences are living substances, and have no other vital activity but that of understanding. Therefore by their nature they must be always actually understanding.
[lib.2.cap.97.n.1] Quod intellectus substantiae separatæ semper actu intelligit. Ex hoc autem apparet quod intellectus substantiae separatæ est semper intelligens actu. 1. Quod enim est quandoque in actu quandoque in potentia mensuratur tempore. Intellectus autem substantiae separatæ est supra tempus, ut probatum est (c. xcxvi). Non est igitur quandoque intelligens actu et quandoque non. 2. Item, omnis substantia vivens habet aliquam operationem vitæ in actu ex sua natura, quæ inest ei semper, licet aliæ quandoque insint ei in potentia; sicut animalia semper nutriuntur, licet non semper sentiant. Substantiæ autem separatæ sunt substantiae viventes, ut ex præmissis patet, nec habent aliam operationem vitæ nisi intelligere. Oportet igitur quod ex sua natura sint intelligentes actu semper. 3. Item, Substantiæ separatæ movent per intellectum corpora cælestia, secundum philosophorum doctrinam, Metaph. XII, c. viii. Motus autem corporum cælestium est semper continuus. Intelligere igitur substantiarum separatarum est continuum et semper. — Hoc autem idem sequitur, etsi non ponantur moventes corpora cælestia, quum sint altiores corporibus cælestibus. Unde, si propria operatio corporis cælestis, quæ est motus ipsius, est continua, multo magis propria operatio substantiarum separatarum, quæ est intelligere. 4. Amplius, Omne quod quandoque operatur et quandoque non operatur movetur per se vel per accidens; unde et hoc quod nos quandoque intelligimus, quandoque non, provenit ex alteratione quæ est circa partem sensibilem, ut dicitur in octavo Physicorum, c. vi. Sed substantiae separatæ non moventur per se, quia non sunt corpora; neque moventur per accidens, quia non sunt unitæ corporibus. Igitur operatio propria, quæ est intelligere, est in eis continua et non intercisa.
Caput 99
[lib.2.cap.99.n.1] CHAPTER XCIX—That Intelligences subsisting apart know Material Things, that is to say, the Species of Things Corporeal
SINCE the mind of these intelligences is perfect with all natural endowments, as being wholly actualised, it must comprehend its object, which is intelligible being, under all its aspects. Now under intelligible being are included the species also of things corporeal.
2. Since the species of things are distinguished like the species of numbers, whatever is in the lower species must be contained somehow in the higher, as the larger number contains the smaller. Since then separately subsistent intelligences rank higher than corporeal substances, all properties that in a material way are in corporeal substances must be in these separately subsistent intelligences in an intelligible and spiritual way: for what is in a thing is in it according to the mode of the thing in which it is.
[lib.2.cap.99.n.1] Quod substantiae separatæ materialia cognoscunt. (I, q. lvii, a. i.) Per praedictas 2 igitur formas intelligibiles, substantia separata non solum cognoscit alias substantias separatas, sed etiam species rerum corporalium. 1. Quum enim intellectus earum sit perfectus naturali perfectione, utpote totus in actu existens, oportet quod suum objectum, scilicet ens intelligibile, universaliter comprehendat. Sub ente autem intelligibili comprehenduntur etiam species rerum corporalium. Eas igitur substantia separata cognoscit. 2. Adhuc, Quum species rerum distinguentur sicut species numerorum, ut supra (c. xcv) habitum est, oportet quod in specie superiori contineatur aliqua-liter quod est in inferiori, sicut major numerus continet minorem. Quum igitur substantiae separatæ sint supra substantias corporales, oportet quod ea quæ sunt in substantiis corporalibus per modum materialem sint in substantiis separatis per modum intelligibilem; quod enim est in aliquo est in eo per modum ejus in quo est. 3. Item, Si substantiae separatæ movent corpora cælestia, ut philosophi ponunt, Metaphys. XII, c. viii, quidquid provenit ex motu corporum cælestium attribuitur ipsis corporibus sicut instrumentis, eo quod movent mota, substantiis autem separatis moventibus sicut principalibus agentibus. Agunt autem et movent per intellectum. Sunt igitur causantes ea quæ fiunt per motum corporum cælestium, sicut artifex operatur per sua instrumenta. Formæ igitur eorum quæ Ex translatione Johan. Scoti.) « Ex bonitate ipsis est cibus bonorum, et sequentibus communicant bona ad ipsas ex bono venientia. » (Ex translat. Johan. Sarraceni.) « Intellectiles ac intelligentes substantiae et virtutes... mansionem a bonitate habent; quin et earum firmitas hinc et stabilitas et conservatio, bonorumque pabulum pendet; et dum illa appetunt, tam ut sint quam ut bene sint, obtinent; necnon generantur et corrumpuntur sunt intelligibiliter in substantiis separatis; unde et Boetius, De Trinit. l. I, c. iii, dicit quod « ex formis quæ sunt sine materia vene-runt formæ quæ sunt in materia. » Co-noscunt igitur substantiae separatæ, non solum substantias separatas, sed etiam species rerum materialium; nam, si co-noscunt species generabilium et corruptibilium corporum tanquam propriorum effectuum, multo magis species corporum cælestium quasi propriorum instrumentorum. Quia vero intellectus substantiae separatæ est in actu, habens omnes similitudines ad quas est in potentia (habet autem virtutem comprehendendi omnes species et differentias entis), necesse est quod substantia separata quælibet cognoscat omnes res naturales et totum ordinem earum. Quum autem intellectus in actu perfectio sit intellectum in actu, potest alicui videri quod substantia separata non intelligat res materiales; inconveniens enim videtur quod res materialis sit perfectio substantiae separatæ. Sed, si recte consideretur, res intellecta est perfectio intelligentis, secundum suam similitudinem quam habet in intellectu; non enim lapis, qui est extra animam, est perfectio intellectus possibilis nostri. Similitudo autem rei materialis in intellectu substantiae separatæ est immaterialiter, secundum modum substantiae separatæ, non secundum modum substantiae materialis. Unde non est inconveniens si hæc similitudo dicatur esse perfectio intellectus substantiae separatæ, sicut propria forma ejus.
Caput 100
[lib.2.cap.100.n.1] CHAPTER C—That Intelligences subsisting apart know Individual Things
INASMUCH as the likenesses representative of things in the mind of a separately subsistent intelligence are more universal than in our mind, and more effectual means of knowledge, such intelligences are instructed by such likenesses of material things not only to the knowledge of material things generically or specifically, as would be the case with our mind, but also to the knowledge of individual existences.
1. The likeness or presentation of a thing in the mind of a separately subsistent intelligence is of far-reaching and universal power, so that, one as that presentation is and immaterial, it can lead to the knowledge of specific principles, and further to the knowledge of individualising or material principles. Thereby the intelligence can become cognisant, not only of the matter of genus and species, but also of that of the individual.
2. What a lower power can do, a higher power can do, but in a more excellent way. Hence where the lower power operates through many agencies, the higher power operates through one only: for the higher a power is, the more it is gathered together and unified, whereas the lower is scattered and multiplied. But the human soul, being of lower rank than the separately subsistent intelligence, takes cognisance of the universal and of the singular by two principles, sense and intellect. The higher and self-subsistent intelligence therefore is cognisant of both in a higher way by one principle, the intellect.
3. Intelligible impressions of things come to our understanding in the opposite order to that in which they come to the understanding of the separately subsisting intelligence. To our understanding they come by way of analysis (resolutio), that is, by abstraction from material and individualising conditions: hence we cannot know individual things by aid of such intelligible or universal presentations. But to the understanding of the separately subsisting intelligence intelligible impressions arrive by way of synthesis (compositio). Such an intelligence has its intelligible impressions by virtue of its assimilation to the original intelligible presentation of the divine understanding, which is not abstracted from things but productive of things, — productive not only of the form, but also of the matter, which is the principle of individuation. Therefore the impressions in the understanding of a separately subsisting intelligence regard the whole object, not only the specific but also the individualising principles. The knowledge of singular and individual things therefore is not to be withheld from separately subsistent intelligences, for all that our intellect cannot take cognisance of the singular and individual.
[lib.2.cap.100.n.1] Quod substantiae separatæ cognoscunt singularia. (I, q. lvii, a. vii.) Quia vero similitudines rerum, in intellectu substantiae separatæ, sunt uni- Ex translatione Johan. Scoti.) « Ex bonitate ipsis est cibus bonorum, et sequentibus communicant bona ad ipsas ex bono venientia. » (Ex translat. Johan. Sarraceni.) « Intellectiles ac intelligentes substantiae et virtutes... mansionem a bonitate habent; quin et earum firmitas hinc et stabilitas et conservatio, bonorumque pabulum pendet; et dum illa appetunt, tam ut sint quam ut bene sint, obtinent; necnon generantur et corrumpuntur sunt intelligibiliter in substantiis separatis; unde et Boetius, De Trinit. l. I, c. iii, dicit quod « ex formis quæ sunt sine materia vene-runt formæ quæ sunt in materia. » Co-noscunt igitur substantiae separatæ, non solum substantias separatas, sed etiam species rerum materialium; nam, si co-noscunt species generabilium et corruptibilium corporum tanquam propriorum effectuum, multo magis species corporum cælestium quasi propriorum instrumentorum. Quia vero intellectus substantiae separatæ, sunt uni- Ex translatione Johan. Scoti.) « Ex bonitate ipsis est cibus bonorum, et sequentibus communicant bona ad ipsas ex bono venientia. » (Ex translat. Johan. Sarraceni.) « Intellectiles ac intelligentes substantiae et virtutes... mansionem a bonitate habent; quin et earum firmitas hinc et stabilitas et conservatio, bonorumque pabulum pendet; et dum illa appetunt, tam ut sint quam ut bene sint, obtinent; necnon generantur et corrumpuntur sunt intelligibiliter in substantiis separatis; unde et Boetius, De Trinit. l. I, c. iii, dicit quod « ex formis quæ sunt sine materia vene-runt formæ quæ sunt in materia. » Co-noscunt igitur substantiae separatæ, non solum substantias separatas, sed etiam species rerum materialium; nam, si co-noscunt species generabilium et corruptibilium corporum tanquam propriorum effectuum, multo magis species corporum cælestium quasi propriorum instrumentorum. Quia vero intellectus substantiae separatæ, sunt uni- Ex translatione Johan. Scoti.) « Ex bonitate ipsis est cibus bonorum, et sequentibus communicant bona ad ipsas ex bono venientia. » (Ex translat. Johan. Sarraceni.) « Intellectiles ac intelligentes substantiae et virtutes... mansionem a bonitate habent; quin et earum firmitas hinc et stabilitas et conservatio, bonorumque pabulum pendet; et dum illa appetunt, tam ut sint quam ut bene sint, obtinent; necnon generantur et corrumpuntur sunt intelligibiliter in substantiis separatis; unde et Boetius, De Trinit. l. I, c. iii, dicit quod « ex formis quæ sunt sine materia vene-runt formæ quæ sunt in materia. » Co-noscunt igitur substantiae separatæ, non solum substantias separatas, sed etiam species rerum materialium; nam, si co-noscunt species generabilium et corruptibilium corporum tanquam propriorum effectuum, multo magis species corporum cælestium quasi propriorum instrumentorum. Quia vero intellectus substantiae separatæ, sunt uni- Ex translatione Johan. Scoti.) « Ex bonitate ipsis est cibus bonorum, et sequentibus communicant bona ad ipsas ex bono venientia. » (Ex translat. Johan. Sarraceni.) « Intellectiles ac intelligentes substantiae et virtutes... mansionem a bonitate habent; quin et earum firmitas hinc et stabilitas et conservatio, bonorumque pabulum pendet; et dum illa appetunt, tam ut sint quam ut bene sint, obtinent; necnon generantur et corrumpuntur sunt intelligibiliter in substantiis separatis; unde et Boetius, De Trinit. l. I, c. iii, dicit quod « ex formis quæ sunt sine materia vene-runt formæ quæ sunt in materia. » Co-noscunt igitur substantiae separatæ, non solum substantias separatas, sed etiam species rerum materialium; nam, si co-noscunt species generabilium et corruptibilium corporum tanquam propriorum effectuum, multo magis species corporum cælestium quasi propriorum instrumentorum. Quia vero intellectus substantiae separatæ, sunt uni- Ex translatione Johan. Scoti.) « Ex bonitate ipsis est cibus bonorum, et sequentibus communicant bona ad ipsas ex bono venientia. » (Ex translat. Johan. Sarraceni.) « Intellectiles ac intelligentes substantiae et virtutes... mansionem a bonitate habent; quin et earum firmitas hinc et stabilitas et conservatio, bonorumque pabulum pendet; et dum illa appetunt, tam ut sint quam ut bene sint, obtinent; necnon generantur et corrumpuntur sunt intelligibiliter in substantiis separatis; unde et Boetius, De Trinit. l. I, c. iii, dicit quod « ex formis quæ sunt sine materia vene-runt formæ quæ sunt in materia. » Co-noscunt igitur substantiae separatæ, non solum substantias separatas, sed etiam species rerum materialium; nam, si co-noscunt species generabilium et corruptibilium corporum tanquam propriorum effectuum, multo magis species corporum cælestium quasi propriorum instrumentorum. Quia vero intellectus substantiae separatæ, sunt uni- Ex translatione Johan. Scoti.) « Ex bonitate ipsis est cibus bonorum, et sequentibus communicant bona ad ipsas ex bono venientia. » (Ex translat. Johan. Sarraceni.) « Intellectiles ac intelligentes substantiae et virtutes... mansionem a bonitate habent; quin et earum firmitas hinc et stabilitas et conservatio, bonorumque pabulum pendet; et dum illa appetunt, tam ut sint quam ut bene sint, obtinent; necnon generantur et corrumpuntur sunt intelligibiliter in substantiis separatis; unde et Boetius, De Trinit. l. I, c. iii, dicit quod « ex formis quæ sunt sine materia vene-runt formæ quæ sunt in materia. » Co-noscunt igitur substantiae separatæ, non solum substantias separatas, sed etiam species rerum materialium; nam, si co-noscunt species generabilium et corruptibilium corporum tanquam propriorum effectuum, multo magis species corporum cælestium quasi propriorum instrumentorum. Quia vero intellectus substantiae separatæ, sunt uni- Ex translatione Johan. Scoti.) « Ex bonitate ipsis est cibus bonorum, et sequentibus communicant bona ad ipsas ex bono venientia. » (Ex translat. Johan. Sarraceni.) « Intellectiles ac intelligentes substantiae et virtutes... mansionem a bonitate habent; quin et earum firmitas hinc et stabilitas et conservatio, bonorumque pabulum pendet; et dum illa appetunt, tam ut sint quam ut bene sint, obtinent; necnon generantur et corrumpuntur sunt intelligibiliter in substantiis separatis; unde et Boetius, De Trinit. l. I, c. iii, dicit quod « ex formis quæ sunt sine materia vene-runt formæ quæ sunt in materia. » Co-noscunt igitur substantiae separatæ, non solum substantias separatas, sed etiam species rerum materialium; nam, si co-noscunt species generabilium et corruptibilium corporum tanquam propriorum effectuum, multo magis species corporum cælestium quasi propriorum instrumentorum. Quia vero intellectus substantiae separatæ, sunt uni- Ex translatione Johan. Scoti.) « Ex bonitate ipsis est cibus bonorum, et sequentibus communicant bona ad ipsas ex bono venientia. » (Ex translat. Johan. Sarraceni.) « Intellectiles ac intelligentes substantiae et virtutes... mansionem a bonitate habent; quin et earum firmitas hinc et stabilitas et conservatio, bonorumque pabulum pendet; et dum illa appetunt, tam ut sint quam ut bene sint, obtinent; necnon generantur et corrumpuntur sunt intelligibiliter in substantiis separatis; unde et Boetius, De Trinit. l. I, c. iii, dicit quod « ex formis quæ sunt sine materia vene-runt formæ quæ sunt in materia. » Co-noscunt igitur substantiae separatæ, non solum substantias separatas, sed etiam species rerum materialium; nam, si co-noscunt species generabilium et corruptibilium corporum tanquam propriorum effectuum, multo magis species corporum cælestium quasi propriorum instrumentorum. Quia vero intellectus substantiae separatæ, sunt uni- Ex translatione Johan. Scoti.) « Ex bonitate ipsis est cibus bonorum, et sequentibus communicant bona ad ipsas ex bono venientia. » (Ex translat. Johan. Sarraceni.) « Intellectiles ac intelligentes substantiae et virtutes... mansionem a bonitate habent; quin et earum firmitas hinc et stabilitas et conservatio, bonorumque pabulum pendet; et dum illa appetunt, tam ut sint quam ut bene sint, obtinent; necnon generantur et corrumpuntur sunt intelligibiliter in substantiis separatis; unde et Boetius, De Trinit. l. I, c. iii, dicit quod « ex formis quæ sunt sine materia vene-runt formæ quæ sunt in materia. » Co-noscunt igitur substantiae separatæ, non solum substantias separatas, sed etiam species rerum materialium; nam, si co-noscunt species generabilium et corruptibilium corporum tanquam propriorum effectuum, multo magis species corporum cælestium quasi propriorum instrumentorum. Quia vero intellectus substantiae separatæ, sunt uni- Ex translatione Johan. Scoti.) « Ex bonitate ipsis est cibus bonorum, et sequentibus communicant bona ad ipsas ex bono venientia. » (Ex translat. Johan. Sarraceni.) « Intellectiles ac intelligentes substantiae et virtutes... mansionem a bonitate habent; quin et earum firmitas hinc et stabilitas et conservatio, bonorumque pabulum pendet; et dum illa appetunt, tam ut sint quam ut bene sint, obtinent; necnon generantur et corrumpuntur sunt intelligibiliter in substantiis separatis; unde et Boetius, De Trinit. l. I, c. iii, dicit quod « ex formis quæ sunt sine materia vene-runt formæ quæ sunt in materia. » Co-noscunt igitur substantiae separatæ, non solum substantias separatas, sed etiam species rerum materialium; nam, si co-noscunt species generabilium et corruptibilium corporum tanquam propriorum effectuum, multo magis species corporum cælestium quasi propriorum instrumentorum. Quia vero intellectus substantiae separatæ, sunt uni- Ex translatione Johan. Scoti.) « Ex bonitate ipsis est cibus bonorum, et sequentibus communicant bona ad ipsas ex bono venientia. » (Ex translat. Johan. Sarraceni.) « Intellectiles ac intelligentes substantiae et virtutes... mansionem a bonitate habent; quin et earum firmitas hinc et stabilitas et conservatio, bonorumque pabulum pendet; et dum illa appetunt, tam ut sint quam ut bene sint, obtinent; necnon generantur et corrumpuntur sunt intelligibiliter in substantiis separatis; unde et Boetius, De Trinit. l. I, c. iii, dicit quod « ex formis quæ sunt sine materia vene-runt formæ quæ sunt in materia. » Co-noscunt igitur substantiae separatæ, non solum substantias separatas, sed etiam species rerum materialium; nam, si co-noscunt species generabilium et corruptibilium corporum tanquam propriorum effectuum, multo magis species corporum cælestium quasi propriorum instrumentorum. Quia vero intellectus substantiae separatæ, sunt uni- Ex translatione Johan. Scoti.) « Ex bonitate ipsis est cibus bonorum, et sequentibus communicant bona ad ipsas ex bono venientia. » (Ex translat. Johan. Sarraceni.) « Intellectiles ac intelligentes substantiae et virtutes... mansionem a bonitate habent; quin et earum firmitas hinc et stabilitas et conservatio, bonorumque pabulum pendet; et dum illa appetunt, tam ut sint quam ut bene sint, obtinent; necnon generantur et corrumpuntur sunt intelligibiliter in substantiis separatis; unde et Boetius, De Trinit. l. I, c. iii, dicit quod « ex formis quæ sunt sine materia vene-runt formæ quæ sunt in materia. » Co-noscunt igitur substantiae separatæ, non solum substantias separatas, sed etiam species rerum materialium; nam, si co-noscunt species generabilium et corruptibilium corporum tanquam propriorum effectuum, multo magis species corporum cælestium quasi propriorum instrumentorum. Quia vero intellectus substantiae separatæ, sunt uni- Ex translatione Johan. Scoti.) « Ex bonitate ipsis est cibus bonorum, et sequentibus communicant bona ad ipsas ex bono venientia. » (Ex translat. Johan. Sarraceni.) « Intellectiles ac intelligentes substantiae et virtutes... mansionem a bonitate habent; quin et earum firmitas hinc et stabilitas et conservatio, bonorumque pabulum pendet; et dum illa appetunt, tam ut sint quam ut bene sint, obtinent; necnon generantur et corrumpuntur sunt intelligibiliter in substantiis separatis; unde et Boetius, De Trinit. l. I, c. iii, dicit quod « ex formis quæ sunt sine materia vene-runt formæ quæ sunt in materia. » Co-noscunt igitur substantiae separatæ, non solum substantias separatas, sed etiam species rerum materialium; nam, si co-noscunt species generabilium et corruptibilium corporum tanquam propriorum effectuum, multo magis species corporum cælestium quasi propriorum instrumentorum. Quia vero intellectus substantiae separatæ, sunt uni- Ex translatione Johan. Scoti.) « Ex bonitate ipsis est cibus bonorum, et sequentibus communicant bona ad ipsas ex bono venientia. » (Ex translat. Johan. Sarraceni.) « Intellectiles ac intelligentes substantiae et virtutes... mansionem a bonitate habent; quin et earum firmitas hinc et stabilitas et conservatio, bonorumque pabulum pendet; et dum illa appetunt, tam ut sint quam ut bene sint, obtinent; necnon generantur et corrumpuntur sunt intelligibiliter in substantiis separatis; unde et Boetius, De Trinit. l. I, c. iii, dicit quod « ex formis quæ sunt sine materia vene-runt formæ quæ sunt in materia. » Co-noscunt igitur substantiae separatæ, non solum substantias separatas, sed etiam species rerum materialium; nam, si co-noscunt species generabilium et corruptibilium corporum tanquam propriorum effectuum, multo magis species corporum cælestium quasi propriorum instrumentorum. Quia vero intellectus substantiae separatæ, sunt uni- Ex translatione Johan. Scoti.) « Ex bonitate ipsis est cibus bonorum, et sequentibus communicant bona ad ipsas ex bono venientia. » (Ex translat. Johan. Sarraceni.) « Intellectiles ac intelligentes substantiae et virtutes... mansionem a bonitate habent; quin et earum firmitas hinc et stabilitas et conservatio, bonorumque pabulum pendet; et dum illa appetunt, tam ut sint quam ut bene sint, obtinent; necnon generantur et corrumpuntur sunt intelligibiliter in substantiis separatis; unde et Boetius, De Trinit. l. I, c. iii, dicit quod « ex formis quæ sunt sine materia vene-runt formæ quæ sunt in materia. » Co-noscunt igitur substantiae separatæ, non solum substantias separatas, sed etiam species rerum materialium; nam, si co-noscunt species generabilium et corruptibilium corporum tanquam propriorum effectuum, multo magis species corporum cælestium quasi propriorum instrumentorum. Quia vero intellectus substantiae separatæ, sunt uni- Ex translatione Johan. Scoti.) « Ex bonitate ipsis est cibus bonorum, et sequentibus communicant bona ad ipsas ex bono venientia. » (Ex translat. Johan. Sarraceni.) « Intellectiles ac intelligentes substantiae et virtutes... mansionem a bonitate habent; quin et earum firmitas hinc et stabilitas et conservatio, bonorumque pabulum pendet; et dum illa appetunt, tam ut sint quam ut bene sint, obtinent; necnon generantur et corrumpuntur sunt intelligibiliter in substantiis separatis; unde et Boetius, De Trinit. l. I, c. iii, dicit quod « ex formis quæ sunt sine materia vene-runt formæ quæ sunt in materia. » Co-noscunt igitur substantiae separatæ, non solum substantias separatas, sed etiam species rerum materialium; nam, si co-noscunt species generabilium et corruptibilium corporum tanquam propriorum effectuum, multo magis species corporum cælestium quasi propriorum instrumentorum. Quia vero intellectus substantiae separatæ, sunt uni- Ex translatione Johan. Scoti.) « Ex bonitate ipsis est cibus bonorum, et sequentibus communicant bona ad ipsas ex bono venientia. » (Ex translat. Johan. Sarraceni.) « Intellectiles ac intelligentes substantiae et virtutes... mansionem a bonitate habent; quin et earum firmitas hinc et stabilitas et conservatio, bonorumque pabulum pendet; et dum illa appetunt, tam ut sint quam ut bene sint, obtinent; necnon generantur et corrumpuntur sunt intelligibiliter in substantiis separatis; unde et Boetius, De Trinit. l. I, c. iii, dicit quod « ex formis quæ sunt sine materia vene-runt formæ quæ sunt in materia. » Co-noscunt igitur substantiae separatæ, non solum substantias separatas, sed etiam species rerum materialium; nam, si co-noscunt species generabilium et corruptibilium corporum tanquam propriorum effectuum, multo magis species corporum cælestium quasi propriorum instrumentorum. Quia vero intellectus substantiae separatæ, sunt uni- Ex translatione Johan. Scoti.) « Ex bonitate ipsis est cibus bonorum, et sequentibus communicant bona ad ipsas ex bono venientia. » (Ex translat. Johan. Sarraceni.) « Intellectiles ac intelligentes substantiae et virtutes... mansionem a bonitate habent; quin et earum firmitas hinc et stabilitas et conservatio, bonorumque pabulum pendet; et dum illa appetunt, tam ut sint quam ut bene sint, obtinent; necnon generantur et corrumpuntur sunt intelligibiliter in substantiis separatis; unde et Boetius, De Trinit. l. I, c. iii, dicit quod « ex formis quæ sunt sine materia vene-runt formæ quæ sunt in materia. » Co-noscunt igitur substantiae separatæ, non solum substantias separatas, sed etiam species rerum materialium; nam, si co-noscunt species generabilium et corruptibilium corporum tanquam propriorum effectuum, multo magis species corporum cælestium quasi propriorum instrumentorum. Quia vero intellectus substantiae separatæ, sunt uni- Ex translatione Johan. Scoti.) « Ex bonitate ipsis est cibus bonorum, et sequentibus communicant bona ad ipsas ex bono venientia. » (Ex translat. Johan. Sarraceni.) « Intellectiles ac intelligentes substantiae et virtutes... mansionem a bonitate habent; quin et earum firmitas hinc et stabilitas et conservatio, bonorumque pabulum pendet; et dum illa appetunt, tam ut sint quam ut bene sint, obtinent; necnon generantur et corrumpuntur sunt intelligibiliter in substantiis separatis; unde et Boetius, De Trinit. l. I, c. iii, dicit quod « ex formis quæ sunt sine materia vene-runt formæ quæ sunt in materia. » Co-noscunt igitur substantiae separatæ, non solum substantias separatas, sed etiam species rerum materialium; nam, si co-noscunt species generabilium et corruptibilium corporum tanquam propriorum effectuum, multo magis species corporum cælestium quasi propriorum instrumentorum. Quia vero intellectus substantiae separatæ, sunt uni- Ex translatione Johan. Scoti.) « Ex bonitate ipsis est cibus bonorum, et sequentibus communicant bona ad ipsas ex bono venientia. » (Ex translat. Johan. Sarraceni.) « Intellectiles ac intelligentes substantiae et virtutes... mansionem a bonitate habent; quin et earum firmitas hinc et stabilitas et conservatio, bonorumque pabulum pendet; et dum illa appetunt, tam ut sint quam ut bene sint, obtinent; necnon generantur et corrumpuntur sunt intelligibiliter in substantiis separatis; unde et Boetius, De Trinit. l. I, c. iii, dicit quod « ex formis quæ sunt sine materia vene-runt formæ quæ sunt in materia. » Co-noscunt igitur substantiae separatæ, non solum substantias separatas, sed etiam species rerum materialium; nam, si co-noscunt species generabilium et corruptibilium corporum tanquam propriorum effectuum, multo magis species corporum cælestium quasi propriorum instrumentorum. Quia vero intellectus substantiae separatæ, sunt uni- Ex translatione Johan. Scoti.) « Ex bonitate ipsis est cibus bonorum, et sequentibus communicant bona ad ipsas ex bono venientia. » (Ex translat. Johan. Sarraceni.) « Intellectiles ac intelligentes substantiae et virtutes... mansionem a bonitate habent; quin et earum firmitas hinc et stabilitas et conservatio, bonorumque pabulum pendet; et dum illa appetunt, tam ut sint quam ut bene sint, obtinent; necnon generantur et corrumpuntur sunt intelligibiliter in substantiis separatis; unde et Boetius, De Trinit. l. I, c. iii, dicit quod « ex formis quæ sunt sine materia vene-runt formæ quæ sunt in materia. » Co-noscunt igitur substantiae separatæ, non solum substantias separatas, sed etiam species rerum materialium; nam, si co-noscunt species generabilium et corruptibilium corporum tanquam propriorum effectuum, multo magis species corporum cælestium quasi propriorum instrumentorum. Quia vero intellectus substantiae separatæ, sunt uni- Ex translatione Johan. Scoti.) « Ex bonitate ipsis est cibus bonorum, et sequentibus communicant bona ad ipsas ex bono venientia. » (Ex translat. Johan. Sarraceni.) « Intellectiles ac intelligentes substantiae et virtutes... mansionem a bonitate habent; quin et earum firmitas hinc et stabilitas et conservatio, bonorumque pabulum pendet; et dum illa appetunt, tam ut sint quam ut bene sint, obtinent; necnon generantur et corrumpuntur sunt intelligibiliter in substantiis separatis; unde et Boetius, De Trinit. l. I, c. iii, dicit quod « ex formis quæ sunt sine materia vene-runt formæ quæ sunt in materia. » Co-noscunt igitur substantiae separatæ, non solum substantias separatas, sed etiam species rerum materialium; nam, si co-noscunt species generabilium et corruptibilium corporum tanquam propriorum effectuum, multo magis species corporum cælestium quasi propriorum instrumentorum. Quia vero intellectus substantiae separatæ, sunt uni- Ex translatione Johan. Scoti.) « Ex bonitate ipsis est cibus bonorum, et sequentibus communicant bona ad ipsas ex bono venientia. » (Ex translat. Johan. Sarraceni.) « Intellectiles ac intelligentes substantiae et virtutes... mansionem a bonitate habent; quin et earum firmitas hinc et stabilitas et conservatio, bonorumque pabulum pendet; et dum illa appetunt, tam ut sint quam ut bene sint, obtinent; necnon generantur et corrumpuntur sunt intelligibiliter in substantiis separatis; unde et Boetius, De Trinit. l. I, c. iii, dicit quod « ex formis quæ sunt sine materia vene-runt formæ quæ sunt in materia. » Co-noscunt igitur substantiae separatæ, non solum substantias separatas, sed etiam species rerum materialium; nam, si co-noscunt species generabilium et corruptibilium corporum tanquam propriorum effectuum, multo magis species corporum cælestium quasi propriorum instrumentorum. Quia vero intellectus substantiae separatæ, sunt uni- Ex translatione Johan. Scoti.) « Ex bonitate ipsis est cibus bonorum, et sequentibus communicant bona ad ipsas ex bono venientia. » (Ex translat. Johan. Sarraceni.) « Intellectiles ac intelligentes substantiae et virtutes... mansionem a bonitate habent; quin et earum firmitas hinc et stabilitas et conservatio, bonorumque pabulum pendet; et dum illa appetunt, tam ut sint quam ut bene sint, obtinent; necnon generantur et corrumpuntur sunt intelligibiliter in substantiis separatis; unde et Boetius, De Trinit. l. 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quarter s quæquququququ quarter s quæquququququ quarter s quæquququququ quarter s quæquququququ quarter s quæquququququ quarter s quæquququququ quarter s quæquququququ quarter s quæquququququ quarter s quæquququququ quarter s quæquququququ quarter s quæquququququ quarter s quæquququququ quarter s quæququququququ quarter s quæquququququ quarter s quæquququququ quarter s quæquququququ quarter s quæquququququ quarter s quæquququququ quarter s quæququququququ quarter s quæququququququ quarter s quæquququququ quarter s quæquququququ quarter s quæquququququ quarter s quæququququququ quarter s quæquququququququ quarter s quæquququququququququququququququququququququququququququququququ versaliores quam in intellectu nostro et efficaciores ad hoc quod per eas aliquid cognoscatur, per similitudines rerum materialium substantiæ separatæ non solum cognoscunt res materiales secundum rationem generis vel speciei, sicut intellectus noster, sed etiam secundum individua. 4. Quum enim species rerum in intellectu existentes oporteat esse immateriales, non poterunt, secundum quod sunt in intellectu nostro, esse principium cognoscendi singularia, quæ per materiam individuantur, eo quod species intellectus nostri in tantum sunt contractæ virtutis quod una ducit solum in cognitionem unius: unde, sicut similitudo naturæ generis non potest ducere in cognitionem generis et differentiæ, ut per eam species cognoscatur, ita similitudo naturæ speciei non potest deducere in cognitionem principiorum speciei et individuantium, quæ sunt principia materialia, ut per eam individuum in sua singularitate cognoscatur. Similitudo vero intellectus substantiæ separatæ, quum sit universalis virtutis, una et immaterialis 4 exsistens, potest ducere in cognitionem principiorum speciei et individuantium 2, quæ sunt principia materialia 3; ita quod per eam 4 substantia separata non solum materiam generis et speciei, sed etiam individui cognoscere possit per suum intellectum. Nec sequitur quod forma per quam cognoscit sit materialis, vel quod sint infinitæ secundum numerum individuorum. 2. Adhuc, Quod potest inferior virtus potest et superior, sed eminentius; unde virtus inferior operatur per multa, ubi virtus superior per unum tantum operatur; virtus enim quanto est superior, tanto magis colligitur et unitur; e contrario vero virtus inferior dividitur et multiplicatur: unde videmus quod diversa genera sensibilium, quæ quinque sensus exteriores percipiunt, una vis sensus communis apprehendit. Anima autem humana est inferior ordine naturæ quam substantia separata; ipsa autem cognoscitiva est universalium et singularium per duo principia, scilicet per sensum et intellectum. Substantia igitur separata, quæ est altior, cognoscit utrumque altiori modo per unum principium, scilicet per 5 intellectum. 3. Item, Species rerum intelligibiles contrario ordine perveniunt ad intellectum nostrum et intellectum substantiæ separatæ; ad intellectum enim nostrum perveniunt per viam resolutionis, scilicet per abstractionem a conditionibus materialibus et individuantibus; unde per eas singularia a nobis cognosci non possunt; ad intellectum autem substantiæ separatæ perveniunt species intelligibiles quasi per viam compositionis 6; habet enim 7 species intelligibiles ex assimilatione sui ad primam intelligibilem speciem intellectus divini, quæ quidem non est a rebus abstracta, sed rerum factiva. Est autem factiva non solum formæ, sed materiae, quæ est individuationis principium. Species igitur intellectus substantiæ separatæ totam rem respiciunt, et non solum principia speciei, sed etiam principia individuantia. Non est igitur singularium cognitio subtrahenda substantiis separatis, licet intellectus noster singularia cognoscere non possit. 4. Præterea, Si corpora cælestia moventur a substantiis separatis, secundum philosophorum positionem, Metaph. XII, c. vIII, quum substantiæ separatæ agant et moveant per intellectum, oportet quod cognoscant mobile quod movent, quod 1 — 2 3 A, B, C, D, G, H, I, J omittunt: « Quæ sunt principia materialia. » 4: « Per. » 6 — B, 7 « Nam Angeli per species rationibus idealibus in mente divina simillimas et ab illis influxas singularia perfecte et determinate cognoscunt. Sicut si artifex generando filium infunderet ei species habet in mente sua, filius cognosceret per species sibi innatas illa artificialia quæ cognoscit pater per species a rebus acceptas. Et hoc verum est quantum ad cognitionem rerum naturalium in universali, et etiam forte quantum ad particularia quæ habent esse necessarium et determinatum in natura, sed non quantum ad particularia contingentia. Non enim oportet quod naturali cognitione Angeli cognoscant omnia quæ agunt homines vel loquuntur. — Unde Augustinus super illud Isaiæ Lxiii, 16: Abraham nescivit vos: Mortui nesciunt, etiam sancti, quid agant vivi, vel eorum filii; anima tamen separata dicitur cognoscere per species influxas, sicut Angeli; ideo dicunt aliqui quod Angeli cognoscunt talia per species a rebus abstractas. » (Ex cod. » G. de F.) est quoddam particulare; nam universalia immobilia sunt. Situs etiam, qui renovantur per motum, sunt quædam singularia quæ non possunt ignorari a substantia movente per intellectum. Oportet igitur dicere quod substantiae separatæ singularia cognoscant istarum materialium rerum.
Caput 101
[lib.2.cap.101.n.1] CHAPTER CI—Whether to Separately Subsisting Intelligences all Points of their Natural Knowledge are Simultaneously Present
Not everything is actually understood, of which there is an intellectual impression actually in the understanding. For since a subsistent intelligence has also a will, and is thereby master of his own acts, it is in his power, when he has got an intellectual impression, to use it by actually understanding it; or, if he has several, to use one of them. Hence also we do not actually consider all things whereof we have knowledge. A subsistent intelligence therefore, knowing by a plurality of impressions, uses the one impression which he wishes, and thereby actually knows at once all things which by one impression he does know. For all things make one intelligible object inasmuch as they are known by one presentation, — as also our understanding knows many things together, when thy are as one by composition or relation with one another. But things that an intelligence knows by different impressions, it does not take cognisance of together. Thus, for one understanding, there is one thing at a time actually understood. There is therefore in the mind of a separately subsisting intelligence a certain succession of acts of understanding; not however movement, properly so called: since it is not a case of actuality succeeding potentiality, but of actuality following upon actuality. But the Divine Mind, knowing all things by the one medium of its essence, and having its act for its essence, understands all things simultaneously: hence in its understanding there is incident no succession, but its act of understanding is entire, simultaneous, perfect, abiding, world without end. Amen.
[lib.2.cap.101.n.1] Utrum substantiae separatæ naturali cognizione cognoscant omnia simul. Quia vero intellectus in actu est intellectum in actu, sicut sensus in actu est sensibile in actu (idem autem non potest simul esse multa in actu), impossibile videtur quod intellectus substantiae separatæ habeat species intelligibilium diversas, sicut jam supra dictum est (c. c). Sed sciendum est quod non omne illud est intellectum in actu cujus species intelligibilis actu est in intellectu; quum enim substantia intelligens sit etiam volens, ac per hoc sit domina sui actus, in potestate ipsius est, postquam habet speciem intelligibilem, ut ea utatur in telligendo $^1$ actu; vel, si habet plures, ut utatur una ipsarum. Unde et ea quorum scientiam habemus, non omnia actu consideramus. Substantia igitur intellectualis, per plures species cognoscens, utitur una quam vult, ac per hoc simul actu cognoscit omnia quæ per unam speciem cognoscit; omnia enim sunt ut unum intelligibile, in quantum sunt per unum cognita, sicut et intellectus noster simul cognoscit multa ad invicem composita vel relata ut unum quoddam. Ea vero quæ per diversas species cognoscit non cognoscit simul; et ideo, sicut est intellectus unus, ita est intellectum in actu unum. Est igitur in intellectu substantiae separatæ quædam intelligentiarum successio; non tamen motus proprie loquendo, quum non succedat actus potentiae, sed actus actui. Intellectus autem divinus, quia per unum, quod est sua essentia, omnia $^2$ cognoscit, et sua actio est sua essentia, omnia simul intelligit; unde in intelligentia ejus non cadit aliqua successio, sed suum intelligere est totum simul perfectum, permanens per omnia se cula seculorum. Amen ($a$). $^1$ $^2$ « Quidam dicunt quod Angelus per speciem abstractam a sensibilibus potest cognoscere singularia. Sicut enim ignis, qui est corporale, potest agere in spirituale, dæmones affligendo, ita res sensibles in intellectum angelicum agere possunt, ita quod si Deus faceret aliquid quod non disposuit facere, augelus possit id cognoscere per abstractionem speciei intelligibilis ab illo. Quod autem intellectus noster non abstrahit immediate a sensibilibus, sed mediante imaginatione, sive fantasia, hoc est quia intellectus noster habet lumen debile respectu luminis angelici, quod tantæ virtutis est ut possit immediate abstrahere a sensibilibus. Sed contra: ratio quare fantasia ad hoc quod agat speciem intelligibilem in intellectu exigit lumen intellectus agentis, quia nullum corporale agit in spirituale, nisi virtute superioris agentis, quia nihil de se agit ultra suam speciem; sed licet Angelus habeat excellentius lumen quam intellectus noster, tamen suum lumen est aque proportionatum intellectui possibili Angeli, sicut in nobis lumen intellectus agentis est proportionale nostro possibili; ergo sicut lumen intellectus nostri non abstrahit a sensibilibus nisi mediante imaginatione, ita nec lumen intellectus angelici abstrahere poterit immediate, prout in nobis, nisi potentia imaginativa et intellectiva in eadem essentia radicarentur; cum sic essent subjectio et essentia res distinctæ intellectus et sensus, nullo modo posset intellectus abstrahere a sensibilibus; immo quia ejusdem essentia sunt istæ potentiae, ideo potest anima per unam potentiam circa objectum alicujus potentiae aliqualiter operari mediante intellectu agente a specie fantasiae abstrahendo. Cum ergo Angelus non habeat aliquam potentiam sensitivam, non poterit per suam intellectivam abstrahere a sensibilibus. Cum enim phantasma sit quasi corporale et inferius, intellectus autem possibilis quasi spirituale et superius, non potest phantasma nisi virtute alicujus superioris, scilicet virtute agentis in genere in possibile: ex quo patet quod quanto intellectus possibilis est altior, tanto difficilius est quod res corporalis agat in eum. Quanto etiam res corporalis agit in virtute fortioris agentis, tanto major facilitas est ad agendum; et quia sicut proportionaliter se habet lumen intellectus agentis nostri ad possibile universum, ita lumen intellectus agentis ad suum possibile. Ideo sicut res extra mediante intellectu agente nostro non est sufficiens admodum intellectum possibilem nostrum satisfacere, eadem ratione nec res mediante lumine intellectus agentis angelici poterit agere in intellectum possibilem ejus. Item si abstraheret, cum species abstracta sit universalis, mediante quo, per quamdam reflexionem posset cognoscere particulare secundum quod particulare. Cognoscit ergo per speciem innatam non abstractam singularia, non sicut quidam dicunt per applicationem ad illa, quia intelligere non est actus transiens in materiale exteriorem, sed magis in intelligente; et oportet in intelligente esse aliquam assimilationem ad intellectum. Sed ex quo in mente Angeli non est nisi species universalis, videtur quod nulla poterit esse applicatio ad particulare. Ideo dicitur quod illa species sub alia et alia ratione est similitudo particularis. Si autem ita est, quod intellectus Angeli habet concreatam speciem, quae est ratio particularis, quia non poterit intelligere particulare ante suum esse actuale, cum nihil recipiat a parte rei; et hujus ratio potest esse quia species quae est in mente Angeli secundum aliam et aliam rationem repræsentat diversa particularia. Sed quia Deus est ipsum suum esse, ideo ad hoc quod intelligat, non requirit aliquam determinationem a parte rei, sed natura angelica determinatur per suum esse, quod recipitur in ea; intelligere autem sequitur modum naturæ intelligentis; et ideo oportet quod intellectum sit determinatum in esse; et ideo species innata in mente angelica non est nisi in potentia representativa rei antequam sit; situi enim in corporalibus respondet ordo in spiritualibus, non enim habent alium situm. Et ideo sensus ad hoc quod cognoscat requirit sicut debitum diametralem sui objecti. Quantumcumque enim aliquis haberet speciem alicujus coloris sigillatam in oculo, tamen mediante illa specie non videret illum colorem nisi diametraliter objiceretur visui aliquid determinans hujus aspectum; ita intellectus angelicus, licet habeat speciem sufficientem qua res est cognoscibilis, tamen si non habeat ordinem ad illam rem, illam non cognoscet; et quia res non habet ordinem ad speciem nisi sit; ideo non intelligitur ab Angelo antequam sit; in omni enim actione creaturarum supponitur ordo universi, ita quod creatura non agit in creatura nec cognoscit eam nisi habeat ordinem ad illam, quod non potest hæc res nisi sit. Solus autem Deus agit et cognoscit, non præsupposito ordine, quia in sua æternitate ei futura jsunt æque præsentia, sicut quæ sunt. Sed intelligere Angeli nec mensuratur æternitate, nec ævo, sed est successivum; ideo repugnat naturæ ejus quod res sit præsens suæ cognitioni antequam sit. Ponitur aliud exemplum de intellectu nostro qui potest habere aliquas species intelligibiles a sensibus acquisitas, mediantibus quibus tamen non potest intelligere nisi per conversionem ad phantasmata, ita quod corruptis aliquibus phantasmatibus poterit remanere species intelligibilis, per quam tamen non intelligeret intellectus nisi ratione aut fantasia, quibus redeuntibus nulla innovatione facta in specie, potest mediante illa intelligere; et sic potest esse in intellectu angelico in quo est species alicujus rei antequam sit, per quam tamen non poterit illam rem intelligere nisi cum fuerit in rerum natura. Sed cum ordo universi consistat in aliquo contactu, saltem virtuali et spirituali, quomodo in existentia rei causatur ordo ejus ad intellectum angeli nisi fiat alias novus influxus a re, et sic in intellectu Angeli aliquid recipiatur a rebus? Nec tota causa intelligendi Angeli erit per species innatas, aut si Angelus virtute speciei innatae ordinem habet ad rem cum existit, illam attingendo per cognitionem, tunc videtur quod quamlibet rem existentem semper actu intelligat, aut causaliter applicabit species suas nunc ad unum, nunc ad aliud, et diceretur quod externa res sufficit ad contactum qui requiritur ad cognitionem. Nam cum intellectus habet speciem quae est sufficiens ratio cognoscendi particulare, natura intellectualis autem non determinat aliquem situm vel locum in universo, sed quantum est de se ens, præsens est omnibus rebus exterioribus; ideo re existente efficitur præsentia cognoscibilis ad cognoscibile, sive continuatio objecti ad speciem et cognoscentem, ita quod ex hujus præsentia rerum intellectus Angeli quodammodo cognoscit omnia existentia simul, saltem sub quadam confusione, licet determinate figatur acies in cogitando de aliquo determinato. Et ex hac confusa cognitione omnium entium naturalium potest Angelus se movere ad cognoscendum de partibus distinctis. Nec est inconveniens quod talis cognitio Angeli per applicationem sive continuationem speciei ad singulare adhuc existens est quodammodo causalis, sicut etiam cognitio specifica nostra diversa cognoscit causaliter secundum quod a causa diversa sensibilii objiciantur; et hoc est planum quantum ad primam cognitionem particularis alicujus, cujus existentia actualis speciei existenti in mente Angeli præsentatur. Nam per hoc quod cognitio talis particularis quamdiu existit species remanet in intellectu angelico, saltem confuse, etiam cum ad cogitandum de alio specialiter se convertit, potest redire ad cogitandum de hujusmodi primo particulari, non causaliter, sicut in cognitionem ejus intendit primo. Unde existentia rei videtur facere ad cognitionem Angeli particularem sicut phantasma in nobis. Nam, corrupto phantasmate, particulare illud cujus erat phantasma cognoscere non possumus, sed fantasmate existente in imaginatione, possumus singulare intelligere per applicationem speciei intelligibilis ad id phantasma. » (Ex cod. G. de F.) 1 Supple: « Videtur. »
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