Q47. Prudence, considered in itself

Secunda Secundae · chapter 47 of 184 · ▶ Speed Read

Greco-Christian stream·Opera Omnia Sancti Thomae (Complete Works of Thomas Aquinas)·Summa Theologiae·Secunda Secundae·Q47. Prudence, considered in itself

Source context

Theme: prudence as the intellectual virtue directing right action through deliberation, judgment, and command
Soul-faculty: Consciousness Soul

Steiner

not engaged in the GA corpus

Cross-tradition

Aristotelian phronesisAquinas's treatment of prudence (Q47) translates Aristotle's phronesis — practical wisdom as the architectonic virtue ordering all action toward the good — into a scholastic-theological framework, preserving the structural distinction between theoretical and practical intellect.
Vedantic viveka (discriminative discernment)Cross-tradition congruence exists between Aquinas's prudentia as right ordering of means to ends and the Vedantic faculty of viveka, both functioning as a higher discerning capacity that governs the orientation of will and desire toward their proper objects.

Article 1

[II-II.q.47.a.1.arg.1] It would seem that prudence is not in the cognitive but in the appetitive faculty. For Augustine says (De Morib. Eccl. xv): "Prudence is love choosing wisely between the things that help and those that hinder." Now love is not in the cognitive, but in the appetitive faculty. Therefore prudence is in the appetitive faculty.

[II-II.q.47.a.1.arg.1] Ad primum sic proceditur. 4. Videtur quod Christus non fuerit ab alio occisus, sed a seipso. Dicit enim ipse Joan., x, 12: Nemo tollit animam meam a me, sed ego pono eam. Ille autem dicitur aliquem occidere qui animam ejus tollit. Non est ergo Christus ab aliis occisus, sed a seipso.

[II-II.q.47.a.1.arg.2] Further, as appears from the foregoing definition it belongs to prudence "to choose wisely." But choice is an act of the appetitive faculty, as stated above (I-II, 13, 1). Therefore prudence is not in the cognitive but in the appetitive faculty.

[II-II.q.47.a.1.arg.2] 2. Præterea, illi qui ab aliis occiduntur, paulatim debilitata natura deficiunt; et maxime hoc apparet in crucifixis: ut enim dicit Augustinus in IV De Trin., cap. xiii, § 16, col. 899, t. 8, « longa morte cruciabantur ligno suspensi. » In Christo autem non hoc accidit; nam clamans voce magna emisit spiritum, ut dicitur Matth., xxvii, 50. Non ergo Christus est ab aliis occisus, sed a seipso.

[II-II.q.47.a.1.arg.3] Further, the Philosopher says (Ethic. vi, 5) that "in art it is better to err voluntarily than involuntarily, whereas in the case of prudence, as of the virtues, it is worse." Now the moral virtues, of which he is treating there, are in the appetitive faculty, whereas art is in the reason. Therefore prudence is in the appetitive rather than in the rational faculty.

[II-II.q.47.a.1.arg.3] 3. Præterea, illi qui ab aliis occiduntur, per violentiam moriuntur, et ita non voluntarie, quia violentum opponitur voluntario. Sed Augustinus dicit in IV De Trinit., loc. cit., quod « Spiritus Christi non deseruit carnem invitus, sed quia Nativitatis Domini in Ephesina synodo. Vide in operibus, tom. 77 Patrum graecorum apud Migne Theodoti, Homiliam ii in die Natali Domini. voluit, quando voluit, et quomodo voluit. » Non ergo Christus est ab aliis occisus, sed a seipso.

[II-II.q.47.a.1.sc] Augustine says (QQ. lxxxiii, qu. 61): "Prudence is the knowledge of what to seek and what to avoid."

[II-II.q.47.a.1.sc] Sed contra est quod dicitur Luc., xviii, 33: Postquam flagellaverint occident eum.

[II-II.q.47.a.1.co] As Isidore says (Etym. x): "A prudent man is one who sees as it were from afar, for his sight is keen, and he foresees the event of uncertainties." Now sight belongs not to the appetitive but to the cognitive faculty. Wherefore it is manifest that prudence belongs directly to the cognitive, and not to the sensitive faculty, because by the latter we know nothing but what is within reach and offers itself to the senses: while to obtain knowledge of the future from knowledge of the present or past, which pertains to prudence, belongs properly to the reason, because this is done by a process of comparison. It follows therefore that prudence, properly speaking, is in the reason.

[II-II.q.47.a.1.co] Respondeo dicendum, quod aliquid potest esse causa alicujus effectus dupli-citer: uno modo directe ad illud quod fit agendo; et hoc modo persecutores Christi eum occiderunt, quia sufficientem causam mortis ei intulerunt, cum inten-tione occidendi ipsum, et effectu subse-quente, quia scilicet ex illa causa est mors subsecuta. Alio modo dicitur aliquis causa alicujus indirecte, scilicet quia non impedit cum impedire possit; sicut si dicatur aliquis alium perfundere, quia non clausit fenestram, per quam imber ingreditur; et hoc modo ipse Christus fuit causa suæ passionis et mortis. Poterat enim suam passionem et mortem impedire, primo quidem adversarios reprimendo, ut eum aut non vellent, aut non possent interficere: secundo, quia spiritus ejus habebat potestatem conservandi naturam carnis suæ, ne a quocum-que læsivo inflicto opprimeretur, quod quidem habuit anima Christi, quia erat Verbo Dei conjuncta in unitate personæ, ut Augustinus dicit in IV De Trinit., ubi supr. Quia ergo anima Christi non repulit a proprio corpore nocumentum illatum, sed voluit quod natura corporalis illi nocumento succumberet, dicitur suam animam posuisse, vel voluntarie mortuus esse.

[II-II.q.47.a.1.ad.1] As stated above (I, 82, 4) the will moves all the faculties to their acts. Now the first act of the appetitive faculty is love, as stated above (I-II, 25, 1 and 2). Accordingly prudence is said to be love, not indeed essentially, but in so far as love moves to the act of prudence. Wherefore Augustine goes on to say that "prudence is love discerning aright that which helps from that which hinders us in tending to God." Now love is said to discern because it moves the reason to discern.

[II-II.q.47.a.1.ad.1] Ad primum ergo dicendum, quod cum dicitur: Nemo tollit animam meam a me, intelligitur, me invito; quod enim aliquis ab invito aufert, qui resistere non potest, illud proprie dicitur toli.

[II-II.q.47.a.1.ad.2] The prudent man considers things afar off, in so far as they tend to be a help or a hindrance to that which has to be done at the present time. Hence it is clear that those things which prudence considers stand in relation to this other, as in relation to the end. Now of those things that are directed to the end there is counsel in the reason, and choice in the appetite, of which two, counsel belongs more properly to prudence, since the Philosopher states (Ethic. vi, 5,7,9) that a prudent man "takes good counsel." But as choice presupposes counsel, since it is "the desire for what has been already counselled" (Ethic. iii, 2), it follows that choice can also be ascribed to prudence indirectly, in so far, to wit, as prudence directs the choice by means of counsel.

[II-II.q.47.a.1.ad.2] Ad secundum dicendum, quod ut Christus ostenderet quod passio illata per violentiam ejus animam non eripiebat, naturam corporalem in sua fortitudine conservavit, ut etiam in extremis positus voce magna clamaret, quod 4 inter alia miracula mortis 2 ejus computatur 5. Unde dicitur Marc., xv, 39: Videns autem Centurio, qui ex adverso stabat, quia sic clamans expirasset, ait: Vere hic homo Filius Dei erat. Fuit etiam mirabile in Christi morte quod velocius mortuus fuit aliis qui simili passione afficiebantur. Unde dicitur Joan., xix, 32, quod eorum qui cum Christo crucifixi erant, fregerunt crura, ut cito morerentur; ad Jesum autem cum venissent, ut viderunt eum jam mortuum, non fregerunt ejus crura; et Marc., xv, 44, dicitur quod Pilatus mirabatur si jam obiisset. Sicut enim ejus voluntate natura corporalis conserva'a est in suo vigore usque ad extremum; sic etiam quando voluit, subito cessit nocimento illato.

[II-II.q.47.a.1.ad.3] The worth of prudence consists not in thought merely, but in its application to action, which is the end of the practical reason. Wherefore if any defect occur in this, it is most contrary to prudence, since, the end being of most import in everything, it follows that a defect which touches the end is the worst of all. Hence the Philosopher goes on to say (Ethic. vi, 5) that prudence is "something more than a merely rational habit," such as art is, since, as stated above (I-II, 57, 4) it includes application to action, which application is an act of the will.

[II-II.q.47.a.1.ad.3] Ad tertium dicendum, quod Christus simul et violentiam passus est ut mori-retur, et tamen voluntarie mortuus fuit, quia violentia corpori ejus illata est, quæ tamen tantum corpori ejus prævaluit, quantum ipse voluit.

Article 2

[II-II.q.47.a.2.arg.1] It would seem that prudence belongs not only to the practical, but also to the speculative reason. For it is written (Proverbs 10:23): "Wisdom is prudence to a man." Now wisdom consists chiefly in contemplation. Therefore prudence does also.

[II-II.q.47.a.2.arg.1] Ad secundum sic proceditur. 4. Videtur quod Christus non fuerit ex obedientia mortuus. Obedientia enim respicit præceptum. Sed non legitur Christo fuisse præceptum quod ipse pateretur. Non ergo ex obedientia passus fuit.

[II-II.q.47.a.2.arg.2] Further, Ambrose says (De Offic. i, 24): "Prudence is concerned with the quest of truth, and fills us with the desire of fuller knowledge." Now this belongs to the speculative reason. Therefore prudence resides also in the speculative reason.

[II-II.q.47.a.2.arg.2] 2. Præterea, illud dicitur aliquis ex obedientia facere quod facit ex necessitate præcepti. Christus autem non ex necessitate, sed voluntarie passus fuit. Non ergo passus est ex obedientia.

[II-II.q.47.a.2.arg.3] Further, the Philosopher assigns art and prudence to the same part of the soul (Ethic. vi, 1). Now art may be not only practical but also speculative, as in the case of the liberal arts. Therefore prudence also is both practical and speculative.

[II-II.q.47.a.2.arg.3] 3. Præterea, charitas est excellentior virtus quam obedientia. Sed Christus legitur ex charitate passus, secundum illud Ephes., v, 2: Ambulate in dilec-tione, sicut et Christus dilexit nos et tradidit semetipsum pro nobis. Ergo passio Christi magis debet attribui charitati quam obedientia.

[II-II.q.47.a.2.sc] The Philosopher says (Ethic. vi, 5) that prudence is right reason applied to action. Now this belongs to none but the practical reason. Therefore prudence is in the practical reason only.

[II-II.q.47.a.2.sc] Sed contra est quod dicitur Philip., ii, 8: Factus est obediens Patri usque ad mortem.

[II-II.q.47.a.2.co] According to the Philosopher (Ethic. vi, 5) "a prudent man is one who is capable of taking good counsel." Now counsel is about things that we have to do in relation to some end: and the reason that deals with things to be done for an end is the practical reason. Hence it is evident that prudence resides only in the practical reason.

[II-II.q.47.a.2.co] Respondeo dicendum, quod convenientissimum fuit quod Christus ex obedientia pateretur. Primo quidem quia hoc conveniebat justificationi humanæ, ut sicut per inobedientiam unius hominis peccatores constituti sunt multi, ita per unius hominis obedientiam justi constituantur * Ita per unius obeditionem, justi constituentur. multi*, ut dicitur Rom., v, 19. Secundo, hoc conveniens fuit reconciliationi Dei ad homines: unde dicitur Rom., v, 10: Reconciliati sumus Deo per mortem Filii ejus, inquantum scilicet ipsa mors Christi fuit quoddam sacrificium acceptissimum Deo, secundum illud Ephes., v, 2: Tradidit semetipsum pro nobis oblationem et hostiam Deo in odorem suavitatis. Obedientia vero omnibus sacrificiis antefertur, secundum illud I Reg., xv, 22: Melior est obedientia quam victimæ. Et ideo conveniens fuit ut sacrificium passionis et mortis Christi ex obedientia procederet. Tertio, hoc conveniens fuit ejus victoriae, qua de morte et auctore mortis triumphavit: non enim miles vincre potest, nisi duci obediat. Et ita homo Christus victoriam obtinuit per hoc quod Deo fuit obediens, secundum illud Proverb., xxI, 28: Vir obediens loquitur victoria*.

[II-II.q.47.a.2.ad.1] As stated above (45, 1 and 3), wisdom considers the absolutely highest cause: so that the consideration of the highest cause in any particular genus belongs to wisdom in that genus. Now in the genus of human acts the highest cause is the common end of all human life, and it is this end that prudence intends. For the Philosopher says (Ethic. vi, 5) that just as he who reasons well for the realization of a particular end, such as victory, is said to be prudent, not absolutely, but in a particular genus, namely warfare, so he that reasons well with regard to right conduct as a whole, is said to be prudent absolutely. Wherefore it is clear that prudence is wisdom about human affairs: but not wisdom absolutely, because it is not about the absolutely highest cause, for it is about human good, and this is not the best thing of all. And so it is stated significantly that "prudence is wisdom for man," but not wisdom absolutely.

[II-II.q.47.a.2.ad.1] Ad primum ergo dicendum, quod Christus mandatum accepit a Patre ut patetur. Dicitur enim Joan., x, 18: Potestatem habeo ponendi animam meam, et potestatem habeo iterum sumendi eam; hoc mandatum accepi a Patre meo; scilicet ponendi animam et sumendi eam. « Ex quo, » ut Chrysost. dicit Hom. xL in Joan., § 2, col. 141, t. 14, « non est intelligendum quod prius expectaverit audire et opus ei fuerit discere, sed voluntarium monstravit processum, et contrarietatis ad Patrem suspicionem destruxit. » Quia tamen in morte Christi lex vetus consummata est, secundum illud quod ipse moriens dixit Joan., xix, 30: Consummatum est, potest intelligigi quod patiendo omnia veteris legis præcepta implevit. Moralia quidem quæ in præceptis charitatis fundantur, implevit, inquantum passus est, et ex dilectione Patris, secundum illud Joan., xiv, 31: Ut cognoscat mundus quia diligo Patrem, et sicut mandatum dedit mihi Pater, sic facio; surgite eamus hinc, scilicet ad locum passionis: et etiam ex dilectione proximi, secundum illud Gal., ii, 20: Dilexit me, et tradidit semetipsum pro me. Cæremonialia vero præcepta legis, quæ ad sacrificia et oblationes præcipue ordinantur, implevit Christus sua passione, inquantum omnia antiqua sacrificia figuræ fuerunt illius veri sacrificii, quod Christus obtulit moriendo pro nobis. Unde dicitur Coloss., ii, 16: Nemo vos judicet in cibo, aut in potu, aut in parte diei festi, aut neomeniæ, quæ sunt umbra futurorum, corpus autem Christi, eo scilicet quod Christus comparatur ad illa sicut corpus ad umbram. Præcepta vero judicialia legis quæ præcipue ordinantur ad satis-faciendum injuriam passis, implevit Christus sua passione, quoniam ut in psal. Lxviii dicitur, quæ non rapuit ex-solvit, permittens se ligno affigi pro pomo quod de ligno homo rapuerat contra Dei mandatum.

[II-II.q.47.a.2.ad.2] Ambrose, and Tully also (De Invent. ii, 53) take the word prudence in a broad sense for any human knowledge, whether speculative or practical. And yet it may also be replied that the act itself of the speculative reason, in so far as it is voluntary, is a matter of choice and counsel as to its exercise; and consequently comes under the direction of prudence. On the other hand, as regards its specification in relation to its object which is the "necessary true," it comes under neither counsel nor prudence.

[II-II.q.47.a.2.ad.2] Ad secundum dicendum, quod obedientia, etsi importet necessitatem respectu ejus quod præcipitur, tamen importat voluntatem respectu impletionis præcepti. Et talis fuit obedientia Christi. Nam ipsa passio et mors, secundum se considerata, naturali voluntati repugnabat; volebat tamen Christus Dei voluntatem circa hoc implere, secundum illud psal. xxxix, 9: Ut facerem voluntatem tuam, Deus meus, volui. Unde dicebat Matth., xxvi, 42: Si non potest hic calix transire, nisi bibam illum, fiat voluntas tua.

[II-II.q.47.a.2.ad.3] Every application of right reason in the work of production belongs to art: but to prudence belongs only the application of right reason in matters of counsel, which are those wherein there is no fixed way of obtaining the end, as stated in Ethic. iii, 3. Since then, the speculative reason makes things such as syllogisms, propositions and the like, wherein the process follows certain and fixed rules, consequently in respect of such things it is possible to have the essentials of art, but not of prudence; and so we find such a thing as a speculative art, but not a speculative prudence.

[II-II.q.47.a.2.ad.3] Ad tertium dicendum, quod eadem ratione Christus passus est ex charitate et obedientia: quia et præcepta charitatis non nisi ex obedientia implevit, et obediens fuit ex dilectione ad Patrem præcipientem.

Article 3

[II-II.q.47.a.3.arg.1] It would seem that prudence does not take cognizance of singulars. For prudence is in the reason, as stated above (1 and 2). But "reason deals with universals," according to Phys. i, 5. Therefore prudence does not take cognizance except of universals.

[II-II.q.47.a.3.arg.1] Ad tertium sic proceditur. 4. Videtur quod Deus Pater non tradiderit Christum passioni. Iniquum enim et crudele videtur esse quod innocens passioni et morti tradatur. Sed, sicut dicitur Deuter., xxxii, 4: Deus fidelis, et absque ulla iniquitate. Ergo Christum innocentem non tradidit passioni et morti.

[II-II.q.47.a.3.arg.2] Further, singulars are infinite in number. But the reason cannot comprehend an infinite number of things. Therefore prudence which is right reason, is not about singulars.

[II-II.q.47.a.3.arg.2] 2. Præterea, non videtur quod aliquis a seipso et ab alio morti tradatur. Sed Christus tradidit semetipsum pro nobis, secundum quod dicitur Isaiæ, liii, 12, Tradidit in mortem animam suam. Non ergo videtur quod Deus Pater eum tradiderit.

[II-II.q.47.a.3.arg.3] Further, particulars are known by the senses. But prudence is not in a sense, for many persons who have keen outward senses are devoid of prudence. Therefore prudence does not take cognizance of singulars.

[II-II.q.47.a.3.arg.3] 3. Præterea, Judas vituperatur ex eo quod tradidit Christum Judæis, secundum illud Joan., vi, 74: Ex vobis unus diabolus est: quod dicebat propter Judam, qui eum erat traditurus. Similiter etiam vituperantur Judæi qui eum tradiderunt Pilato, secundum quod ipse dicit Joan., xviii, 35: Gens tua et pontifices tradiderunt te mihi. Pilatus etiam tradidit illum ut crucifigeretur, ut habetur Joan., xix, 16: Non est autem participatio justitia cum iniquitate, ut dicitur II Corinth., vi, 14. Ergo videtur quod Deus Pater non tradiderit Christum passioni.

[II-II.q.47.a.3.sc] The Philosopher says (Ethic. vi, 7) that "prudence does not deal with universals only, but needs to take cognizance of singulars also."

[II-II.q.47.a.3.sc] Sed contra est quod dicitur Rom., viii, 32: Proprio Filio suo non pepercit Deus, sed pro nobis omnibus tradidit illum.

[II-II.q.47.a.3.co] As stated above (1, ad 3), to prudence belongs not only the consideration of the reason, but also the application to action, which is the end of the practical reason. But no man can conveniently apply one thing to another, unless he knows both the thing to be applied, and the thing to which it has to be applied. Now actions are in singular matters: and so it is necessary for the prudent man to know both the universal principles of reason, and the singulars about which actions are concerned.

[II-II.q.47.a.3.co] Respondeo dicendum, quod, sicut dictum est, Christus passus est voluntarie ex obedientia Patris. Unde secundum tria Deus Pater tradidit Christum passioni: uno quidem modo secundum quod sua æterna voluntate præordinavit passionem Christi ad humani generis liberationem, secundum illud quod dicitur Isaiæ, liii, 6: Posuit Dominus in eo iniquitatem omnium nostrum; et iterum: Dominus voluit conterere eum in infirmitate. Secundo, inquantum inspiravit ei voluntatem patiendi pro nobis, infundendo ei charitatem: unde ibidem sequitur: Oblatus est, quia ipse voluit. Tertio, non protegendo eum a passione, sed exponendo persequentibus: unde et legitur Matth., xxvii, 46, quod pendens in cruce Christus dicebat: Deus meus, Deus meus, ut quid dereliquisti me? quia scilicet potestati persequentium eum exposuit, ut Augustinus dicit De gratia novi Testam., epist. cxL, cap. x, col. 550, t. 2. Ad primum ego dicendum, quod innocentem hominem passioni et morti tradere contra ejus voluntatem est impium et crudele. Sic autem Deus Pater Christum non tradidit, sed inspirando ei voluntatem patiendi pro nobis. In quo ostenditur et Dei severitas, qui peccatum sine pœna dimittere noluit: quod signat Apostolus dicens, Rom., viii, 32: Proprio Filio suo non pepercit; et bonitas ejus in eo quod cum homo sufficienter satisfacere non posset per aliquam pœnam, quam pateretur, ei satisfactorem dedit: quod signavit Apostolus dicens: Pro nobis omnibus tradidit illum; et Rom., iii, 25, dicit: Quem, scilicet Christum, proposuit Deus propitiatorem * per fidem in sanguine ipsius.

[II-II.q.47.a.3.ad.1] Reason first and chiefly is concerned with universals, and yet it is able to apply universal rules to particular cases: hence the conclusions of syllogisms are not only universal, but also particular, because the intellect by a kind of reflection extends to matter, as stated in De Anima iii.

[II-II.q.47.a.3.ad.1] Ad primum ergo dicendum, quod ratio primo quidem et principaliter est universalium; potest tamen universales rationes ad particularia applicare; unde syllogismorum conclusiones non solum sunt universales, sed etiam particulares; quia intellectus per quamdam reflexionem se ad materiam extendit, ut dicitur in III De anima, text. 10.

[II-II.q.47.a.3.ad.2] It is because the infinite number of singulars cannot be comprehended by human reason, that "our counsels are uncertain" (Wisdom 9:14). Nevertheless experience reduces the infinity of singulars to a certain finite number which occur as a general rule, and the knowledge of these suffices for human prudence.

[II-II.q.47.a.3.ad.2] Ad secundum dicendum, quod Christus, secundum quod Deus, tradidit semetipsum in mortem eadem voluntate et actione qua et Pater tradidit eum: sed inquantum homo, tradidit seipsum voluntate a Patre inspirata. Unde non est contrarietas in hoc quod Pater tradidit Christum, et ipse tradidit semetipsum.

[II-II.q.47.a.3.ad.3] As the Philosopher says (Ethic. vi, 8), prudence does not reside in the external senses whereby we know sensible objects, but in the interior sense, which is perfected by memory and experience so as to judge promptly of particular cases. This does not mean however that prudence is in the interior sense as in its principle subject, for it is chiefly in the reason, yet by a kind of application it extends to this sense.

[II-II.q.47.a.3.ad.3] Ad tertium dicendum, quod eadem actio diversimode judicatur in bono vel in malo, secundum quod ex diversa radice procedit. Pater enim tradidit Christum, et ipse semetipsum ex charitate, et ideo laudantur: Judas autem tradidit ipsum ex cupiditate, Judæi autem ex invidia, Pilatus ex timore mundano, quo timuit Cæsarem: et ideo ipsi vituperantur.

Article 4

[II-II.q.47.a.4.arg.1] It would seem that prudence is not a virtue. For Augustine says (De Lib. Arb. i, 13) that "prudence is the science of what to desire and what to avoid." Now science is condivided with virtue, as appears in the Predicaments (vi). Therefore prudence is not a virtue.

[II-II.q.47.a.4.arg.1] Ad quartum sic proceditur. 4. Videtur quod non fuerit conveniens Christum pati a Gentilibus. Quia enim per mortem Christi homines erant a peccato liberandi, conveniens videbatur ut paucissimi in morte ejus peccarent. Peccaverunt autem in morte ejus Judæi, ex quorum persona dicitur Matth., xxi, 38: Hic est heres: venite occidamus eum. Ergo videur conveniens fuisse quod in peccato occisionis Christi Gentiles non implicareur.

[II-II.q.47.a.4.arg.2] Further, there is no virtue of a virtue: but "there is a virtue of art," as the Philosopher states (Ethic. vi, 5): wherefore art is not a virtue. Now there is prudence in art, for it is written (2 Chronicles 2:14) concerning Hiram, that he knew "to grave all sort of graving, and to devise ingeniously [prudenter] all that there may be need of in the work." Therefore prudence is not a virtue.

[II-II.q.47.a.4.arg.2] 2. Præterea, veritas debet respondere figuræ. Sed figuralia sacrificia veteris legis non Gentiles, sed Judaei offerebant. Ergo neque passio Christi, quæ fuit verum sacrificium, impleri debuit per manus Gentilibus.

[II-II.q.47.a.4.arg.3] Further, no virtue can be immoderate. But prudence is immoderate, else it would be useless to say (Proverbs 23:4): "Set bounds to thy prudence." Therefore prudence is not a virtue.

[II-II.q.47.a.4.arg.3] 3. Præterea, sicut dicitur Joan., v, Judæi quærebant Christum interficere, non solum quia solvebat sabbatum, sed etiam quia Patrem suum dicebat Deum, æqualem se Deo faciens. Sed hoc videbatur esse solum contra legem Judæorum; unde et ipsi dicunt, Joan., xix, 7: Secundum legem debet mori, quia filium Dei se fecit. Videtur ergo inconveniens fuisse quod Christus non a Gentibus, sed a Judæis pateretur, et falsum esse quod dixerunt: Nobis non licet interficere quemquam, cum multa peccata secundum legem morte puniantur, ut patet Levit., xx.

[II-II.q.47.a.4.sc] Gregory states (Moral. ii, 49) that prudence, temperance, fortitude and justice are four virtues.

[II-II.q.47.a.4.sc] Sed contra est quod ipse dominus dicit Matth., xx, 19: Tradent eum Gentibus ad illudendum et flagellandum, et crucifigendum.

[II-II.q.47.a.4.co] As stated above (I-II, 55, 3; I-II, 56, 1) when we were treating of virtues in general, "virtue is that which makes its possessor good, and his work good likewise." Now good may be understood in a twofold sense: first, materially, for the thing that is good, secondly, formally, under the aspect of good. Good, under the aspect of good, is the object of the appetitive power. Hence if any habits rectify the consideration of reason, without regarding the rectitude of the appetite, they have less of the nature of a virtue since they direct man to good materially, that is to say, to the thing which is good, but without considering it under the aspect of good. On the other hand those virtues which regard the rectitude of the appetite, have more of the nature of virtue, because they consider the good not only materially, but also formally, in other words, they consider that which is good under the aspect of good.

Now it belongs to prudence, as stated above (1, ad 3; 3) to apply right reason to action, and this is not done without a right appetite. Hence prudence has the nature of virtue not only as the other intellectual virtues have it, but also as the moral virtues have it, among which virtues it is enumerated.

[II-II.q.47.a.4.co] Respondeo dicendum, quod in ipso modo passionis Christi præfiguratus est effectus ipsius: primo enim passio Christi effectum salutis habuit in Judæis, quorum plurimi in morte Christi baptizati sunt, ut patet Act., 11 et 111. Secundo vero Judæis prædicantibus, effectus passionis Christi transivit ad Gentes. Et ideo conveniens fuit ut Christus a Judæis pati inciperet, et postea Judæis tradentibus, per manus Gentilium ejus passio finiretur.

[II-II.q.47.a.4.ad.1] Augustine there takes science in the broad sense for any kind of right reason.

[II-II.q.47.a.4.ad.1] Ad primum ergo dicendum, quod Christus ad ostendendum abundantiam charitatis suæ, ex qua patiebatur, in cruce positus veniam pro persecutoribus postulavit. Et ideo, ut hujus petitionis fructus ad Judæos et Gentiles perveniret, voluit Christus ab utrisque pati.

[II-II.q.47.a.4.ad.2] The Philosopher says that there is a virtue of art, because art does not require rectitude of the appetite; wherefore in order that a man may make right use of his art, he needs to have a virtue which will rectify his appetite. Prudence however has nothing to do with the matter of art, because art is both directed to a particular end, and has fixed means of obtaining that end. And yet, by a kind of comparison, a man may be said to act prudently in matters of art. Moreover in certain arts, on account of the uncertainty of the means for obtaining the end, there is need for counsel, as for instance in the arts of medicine and navigation, as stated in Ethic. iii, 3.

[II-II.q.47.a.4.ad.2] Ad secundum dicendum, quod passio Christi fuit sacrificii oblatio, inquantum Christus propria voluntate mortem sustinuit ex charitate; in quantum autem a persecutoribus est passus, non fuit sacrificium, sed peccatum gravissimum.

[II-II.q.47.a.4.ad.3] This saying of the wise man does not mean that prudence itself should be moderate, but that moderation must be imposed on other things according to prudence.

[II-II.q.47.a.4.ad.3] Ad tertium dicendum, quod, sicut Augustinus dicit Tract. cxiv in Joan., col. 1937, t. 3, « Judæi dicentes: Nobis non licet interficere quemquam, intellexerunt non sibi licere interficere quemquam propter diei festi sanctitatem, quem celebrare jam cæperant. » Vel hoc dicebant, ut Chrysostomus dicit Hom. lxxxiii in Joan., § 4, col. 368, t. 14, « quia volebant eum occidi, non tamquam transgressorem legis, sed tamquam publicum hostem, quia se regem fecerat, de quo non erateorum judicare. » Vel quia non licebat eis crucifigere, quod cupiebant, sed lapidare, ut in Stephano fecerunt. Vel melius dicendum est quod per Romanos, quibus erant subjecti, erat eis potestas occidendi interdicta.

Article 5

[II-II.q.47.a.5.arg.1] It would seem that prudence is not a special virtue. For no special virtue is included in the definition of virtue in general, since virtue is defined (Ethic. ii, 6) "an elective habit that follows a mean appointed by reason in relation to ourselves, even as a wise man decides." Now right reason is reason in accordance with prudence, as stated in Ethic. vi, 13. Therefore prudence is not a special virtue.

[II-II.q.47.a.5.arg.1] Ad quintum sic proceditur. 1. Videtur quod persecutores Christi eum cognoverint. Dicitur enim Matth., xx1, 38, quod agricolæ videntes Filium dixerunt intra se: Hic est heres: venite occidamus eum; ubi dicit Hieron. Glos. ord., col. 154, t. 2: « Manifeste Dominus probat ex his verbis Judæorum principes non per ignorantiam, sed per invidiam Dei Filium crucifixisse; intellexerunt enim eum esse illum cui Pater per Prophetam dicit, psal. 11: Postula a me, et dabo tibi gentes hæreditatem tuam. » Ergo videtur quod cognoverint eum esse Christum vel Filium Dei.

[II-II.q.47.a.5.arg.2] Further, the Philosopher says (Ethic. vi, 13) that "the effect of moral virtue is right action as regards the end, and that of prudence, right action as regards the means." Now in every virtue certain things have to be done as means to the end. Therefore prudence is in every virtue, and consequently is not a special virtue.

[II-II.q.47.a.5.arg.2] 2. Præterea, Joan., xv, 24, Dominus dicit: Nunc autem et viderunt, et oderunt et me, et Patrem meum. Quod autem videtur, manifeste cognoscitur. Ergo Judæi cognoscentes Christum ex causa odii ei passionem intulerunt.

[II-II.q.47.a.5.arg.3] Further, a special virtue has a special object. But prudence has not a special object, for it is right reason "applied to action" (Ethic. vi, 5); and all works of virtue are actions. Therefore prudence is not a special virtue.

[II-II.q.47.a.5.arg.3] 3. Præterea, in quodam Serm. Ephesini conc., § 12, col. 1383, oper. Theod. Ancyr., dicitur: « Sicut qui chartam imperialem discerpserit, tamquam imperatoris disrumpens verbum, ad mortem ad dicitur: sic crucifigens Judæus, quem viderat, pœnas dabit tamquam in ipsum Deum Verbum præsumptiones injiciens. » Hoc autem non esset, si eum esse Dei Filium non cognovissent, quia ignorantia eos excusasset. Ergo videtur quod Judæi crucifigentes Christum cognoverint eum esse Filium Dei.

[II-II.q.47.a.5.sc] It is distinct from and numbered among the other virtues, for it is written (Wisdom 8:7): "She teacheth temperance and prudence, justice and fortitude."

[II-II.q.47.a.5.sc] Sed contra est quod dicitur Iad Corinth., 11, 8: Si cognovissent, nunquam Dominum gloriæ crucifixissent; et Act., 111, 17, dicit Petrus Judæis loquens: Scio quia per ignorantiam fecistis, sicut et principes vestri: et Dominus in cruce pendens dicit: Pater, dimitte illis: non enim sciunt quid faciunt, Lucæ, xxiii, 34.

[II-II.q.47.a.5.co] Since acts and habits take their species from their objects, as shown above (I-II, 01, 3; I-II, 18, 2; I-II, 54, 2), any habit that has a corresponding special object, distinct from other objects, must needs be a special habit, and if it be a good habit, it must be a special virtue. Now an object is called special, not merely according to the consideration of its matter, but rather according to its formal aspect, as explained above (I-II, 54, 2, ad 1). Because one and the same thing is the subject matter of the acts of different habits, and also of different powers, according to its different formal aspects. Now a yet greater difference of object is requisite for a difference of powers than for a difference of habits, since several habits are found in the same power, as stated above (I-II, 54, 1). Consequently any difference in the aspect of an object, that requires a difference of powers, will "a fortiori" require a difference of habits.

Accordingly we must say that since prudence is in the reason, as stated above (Article 2), it is differentiated from the other intellectual virtues by a material difference of objects. "Wisdom," "knowledge" and "understanding" are about necessary things, whereas "art" and "prudence" are about contingent things, art being concerned with "things made," that is, with things produced in external matter, such as a house, a knife and so forth; and prudence, being concerned with "things done," that is, with things that have their being in the doer himself, as stated above (I-II, 57, 4). On the other hand prudence is differentiated from the moral virtues according to a formal aspect distinctive of powers, i.e. the intellective power, wherein is prudence, and the appetitive power, wherein is moral virtue. Hence it is evident that prudence is a special virtue, distinct from all other virtues.

[II-II.q.47.a.5.co] Respondeo dicendum, quod apud Judæos quidam erant majores, et quidam minores. « Majores quidem qui eorum principes dicebantur, » ut dicitur in lib. QQ. veteris et novi Testam., quæst. Lxvi, col. 2261, t. 3, « sicut et dæmones, cognoverunt eum esse Christum promissum in lege: omnia enim signa videbant in Non legitur autem nisi in Ord. Glossa, loco cit. eo quæ dixerunt futura Prophetæ; mysterium autem divinitatis ejus ignorabant. Et ideo Apostolus dicit quod si cognovisent, nunquam Dominum gloriæ cruci-fixissent. Sciendum tamen quod eorum ignorantia non eos excusabat a crimine, quia erat quodammodo ignorantia affectata: videbant enim evidentia signa divinitatis ipsius, sed ex odio, et invidia Christi ea pervertebant; et verbis ejus, quibus se Dei Filium fatebatur, credere noluerunt. Unde ipse de eis dicit Joan., xv, 22: Si non venissem, et locutus non fuissem eis*, peccatum non haberent; nunc autem excusationem non habent de peccato suo. Et postea subdit: Si opera non fecissem in eis, quæ nemo alius fecit, peccatum non haberent. Et sic ex persona eorum accipi potest quod dicitur Job, xxI, 14: Dixerunt Deo: Recede a nobis, scientiam viarum tuarum nolumus. Minores vero, id est populares qui mysteria scripturæ non noverant, non plene cognoverunt ipsum esse nec Christum, nec Filium Dei. Licet enim aliqui eorum in eum crediderint, multitudo tamen non credidit; et si aliquando dubitaverunt an ipse esset Christus, propter signorum multitudinem et efficaciam doctrinæ, ut habetur Joan., VII, tamen postea decepti fuerunt a suis principibus, ut eum non crederent neque Filium Dei, neque Christum. Unde et Petrus eis dixit: Scio quia per ignorantiam fecistis, sicut et principes vestri, quia sci-licet principes seducti erant.

[II-II.q.47.a.5.ad.1] This is not a definition of virtue in general, but of moral virtue, the definition of which fittingly includes an intellectual virtue, viz., prudence, which has the same matter in common with moral virtue; because, just as the subject of moral virtue is something that partakes of reason, so moral virtue has the aspect of virtue, in so far as it partakes of intellectual virtue.

[II-II.q.47.a.5.ad.1] Ad primum ergo dicendum, quod illa verba dicuntur ex persona colonorum vineæ; per quos significantur rectores illius populi, qui eum cognoverunt esse heredem, inquantum cognoverunt eum esse Christum promissum in lege. Sed contra hanc responsionem esse videtur quod illa verba psalmi II, 8: Postula a me, et dabo tibi gentes hereditatem tuam, eidem dicuntur cui dicitur: Filius meus es tu, ego hodie genui te. Si ergo cognoverunt eum esse illum cui dictum est: Postula a me, et dabo tibi gentes hereditatem tuam, sequitur quod cognoverunt eum esse Filium Dei. Chrysostomus etiam ibidem, Hom. xl Op. 4 imperf., a med., dicit quod « cognoverunt eum esse Filium Dei. » Beda etiam Super illud Luc., xxIII: Quia nesciunt quid faciunt, col. 646, t. 3: « Notandum, inquit, quod non pro eis orat qui, quem Filium Dei intellexerunt, crucifigere quam confiteri maluerunt. » Sed ad hoc potest responderi quod cognoverint eum esse Filium Dei, non per naturam, sed per excellentiam gratiae singularis. Possumus tamen dicere quod etiam verum Dei Filium cognovisse dicuntur, quia evidentia signa hujus rei habebant; quibus tamen assentire propter odium et invidiam noluerunt, ut eum cognoscerent esse Filium Dei.

[II-II.q.47.a.5.ad.2] This argument proves that prudence helps all the virtues, and works in all of them; but this does not suffice to prove that it is not a special virtue; for nothing prevents a certain genus from containing a species which is operative in every other species of that same genus, even as the sun has an influence over all bodies.

[II-II.q.47.a.5.ad.2] Ad secundum dicendum, quod ante illa verba præmittitur: Si opera non fecissem in eis quæ nemo alius fecit, peccatum non haberent, et postea subditur: Nunc autem viderunt, et oderunt et me et Patrem meum. Per quod ostenditur quod videntes opera Christi mirifica, ex odio processit quod eum Filium Dei non cognoverunt.

[II-II.q.47.a.5.ad.3] Things done are indeed the matter of prudence, in so far as they are the object of reason, that is, considered as true: but they are the matter of the moral virtues, in so far as they are the object of the appetitive power, that is, considered as good.

[II-II.q.47.a.5.ad.3] Ad tertium dicendum, quod ignorantia affectata non excusat a culpa, sed magis videtur culpam aggravare: ostendit enim hominem sic vehementer esse affectum ad peccandum, quod vult ignorantiam incurrere, ne peccatum vitet. Et ideo Judæi peccaverunt, non solum hominis Christi, sed tamquam Dei crucifixores.

Article 8

[II-II.q.47.a.8.arg.1] It would seem that command is not the chief act of prudence. For command regards the good to be ensued. Now Augustine (De Trin. xiv, 9) states that it is an act of prudence "to avoid ambushes." Therefore command is not the chief act of prudence.

[II-II.q.47.a.8.arg.1] Ad octavum sic proceditur. 4. Videtur quod præcipere non sit principalis actus In — In — Cod.; in — Ita mss. et edit. passim; Nicolaï: « peracta dispositione eorum, » etc. — Sic cod.; Virtutes morales quæ sunt in appetitu sufficienter quidem inclinant hominem ad sua objecta ut sic, nimirum justitia ad reddendum cuique jus suum, fortitudo ad fortiter agendum in periculis, temperantia ad temperate vivendum; sed quia non est veræ virtutis opus nisi servet medium rationis, hoc est, nisi vestiatur omnibus debitis circum-stantiis, puta nisi flat quando, ubi, quomodo, quantum, etc., fieri debet, necesse est aliam esse virtutem in intellectu quæ suo lumine virtutes præfatas dirigat in attingendo medium rationis, indicando scilicet media congrua, et circumstantias debitas cum quibus debeat fieri opus virtutis. Et ea virtus est prudentia. Si quæratur sub qua ratione suum attingat objectum, an sub ratione veri; vel sub ratione boni? — Utrumque adstruere videtur S. Thomas, primum a. v, ad 3, secundum a. iv. Fieri autem non potest ut eadem virtus respiciat suum objectum sub diversa ratione formali. — Unde dicendum est prudentiam primo et essentialiter respicere suum objectum sub ratione veri practici, et consequenter ac secundario sub ratione boni in quo nulla est implicantia. Aliud est verum speculativum, aliud verum practicum. Speculativum attenditur per conformitatem intellectus ad rem, practicum per conformitatem ad appetitum rectum. Intellectus concipit et enuntiat rem sicuti est: hoc est verum speculativum; concipit et enuntiat id quod est appetitui recto conforme: hoc est verum practicum. Prudentia primo attingit suum objectum sub ratione veri practici, quia objectum ejus est agibile et conforme appetitui recto, adeoque practice verum; et sub hac ratione est virtus intellectualis cui non subest falsum. Sed prudentia non cognoscit istud objectum ut in ejus cognitione sistat, bene autem ut illud quod est bonum per alias virtutes morales operetur, et ideo secundario respicit suum objectum sub ratione boni, sicque ratione materiae et finis est virtus moralis directiva morum, non elicitiva ut aliæ virtutes, justitia, fortitudo et temperantia. prudentiæ. Præcipere enim pertinet ad bona quæ sunt fienda. Sed Augustinus, XIV De Trin., c. ix, col. 1046, t. 8, ponit actum prudentiæ « præcavere insidias. » Ergo præcipere non est principalis actus prudentiæ.

[II-II.q.47.a.8.arg.2] Further, the Philosopher says (Ethic. vi, 5) that "the prudent man takes good counsel." Now "to take counsel" and "to command" seem to be different acts, as appears from what has been said above (I-II, 57, 6). Therefore command is not the chief act of prudence.

[II-II.q.47.a.8.arg.2] 2. Præterea, Philosophus dicit in VI Ethic., cap. v, in princ., quod « prudentis est bene consiliari. » Sed alius actus videtur esse consiliari et præcipere, ut ex supra dictis patet. Ergo prudentiæ principalis actus non est præcipere.

[II-II.q.47.a.8.arg.3] Further, it seems to belong to the will to command and to rule, since the will has the end for its object, and moves the other powers of the soul. Now prudence is not in the will, but in the reason. Therefore command is not an act of prudence.

[II-II.q.47.a.8.arg.3] 3. Præterea, præcipere vel imperare videtur pertinere ad voluntatem; cujus objectum est finis, et quæ movet alias potentias animæ. Sed prudentia non est in voluntate, sed in ratione. Ergo prudentiæ actus non est præcipere.

[II-II.q.47.a.8.sc] The Philosopher says (Ethic. vi, 10) that "prudence commands."

[II-II.q.47.a.8.sc] Sed contra est quod Philosophus dicit in VI Ethic., cap. x, quod « prudentia præceptiva est. »

[II-II.q.47.a.8.co] Prudence is "right reason applied to action," as stated above (Article 2). Hence that which is the chief act of reason in regard to action must needs be the chief act of prudence. Now there are three such acts. The first is "to take counsel," which belongs to discovery, for counsel is an act of inquiry, as stated above (I-II, 14, 1). The second act is "to judge of what one has discovered," and this is an act of the speculative reason. But the practical reason, which is directed to action, goes further, and its third act is "to command," which act consists in applying to action the things counselled and judged. And since this act approaches nearer to the end of the practical reason, it follows that it is the chief act of the practical reason, and consequently of prudence.

In confirmation of this we find that the perfection of art consists in judging and not in commanding: wherefore he who sins voluntarily against his craft is reputed a better craftsman than he who does so involuntarily, because the former seems to do so from right judgment, and the latter from a defective judgment. On the other hand it is the reverse in prudence, as stated in Ethic. vi, 5, for it is more imprudent to sin voluntarily, since this is to be lacking in the chief act of prudence, viz. command, than to sin involuntarily.

[II-II.q.47.a.8.co] Respondeo dicendum, quod prudentia est « recta ratio agibilium, » ut supra dictum est. Unde oportet quod ille sit præcipuus actus prudentiæ, qui est præcipuus actus rationis agibilium; cujus quidem sunt tres actus. Quorum primus est consiliari, quod pertinet ad inventionem; nam consiliari est quærere, ut supra habitum est. Secundus actus est « judicare de inventis; » et hic stat speculativa ratio. Sed practica ratio, quæ ordinatur ad opus, procedit ulterius; et est tertius actus ejus « præcipere; » qui quidem actus consistit in applicatione consiliatorum et judicatorum ad operandum. Et quia iste actus est propinquior fini rationis practicæ, inde est quod iste est principalis actus rationis practicæ et per consequens prudentiæ. Et hujus signum est quod perfectio artis consistit in judicando, non autem in præcipiendo. Ideo reputatur melior artifex qui volens peccat in arte, quasi habens rectum judicium, quam qui peccat nolens, quod videtur esse ex defectu judicii. Sed in prudentia est e converso, ut dicitur in VI Ethic., Sic cod; non ut in « Sollicitus, quia solers, et citus, atque irrequietus. » Migne. Ita mss. et editi passim, cum Vulgata; al. omittitur: quas nudiustertius perdidisti. Videtur quod principalis actus prudentiæ non sit imperium. Nam virtus quæ est circa finem imperat illi quæ est circa media. Porro aliæ virtutes sunt circa finem, et prudentia circa media. Ergo aliæ virtutes imperant prudentiæ, non prudentia aliis virtutibus. — Sed finis virtutum mora-cap. v, circa fin.; imprudentior enim est qui volens peccat quasi deficiens in principali actu prudentiæ, qui est præcipere, quam qui peccat nolens.

[II-II.q.47.a.8.ad.1] The act of command extends both to the ensuing of good and to the avoidance of evil. Nevertheless Augustine ascribes "the avoidance of ambushes" to prudence, not as its chief act, but as an act of prudence that does not continue in heaven.

[II-II.q.47.a.8.ad.1] Ad primum ergo dicendum, quod actus præcipiendi se extendit et ad bona prose-quenda et ad mala cavenda; et tamen « præcavere insidias » non attribuit Augustinus prudentiæ quasi principalem actum ipsius, sed quia iste actus prudentiæ non manet in patria.

[II-II.q.47.a.8.ad.2] Good counsel is required in order that the good things discovered may be applied to action: wherefore command belongs to prudence which takes good counsel.

[II-II.q.47.a.8.ad.2] Ad secundum dicendum, quod bonitas consiliii requiritur ut ea quæ sunt bene inventa applicentur ad opus; et ideo præcipere pertinet ad prudentiam, quæ est bene consiliativa.

[II-II.q.47.a.8.ad.3] Simply to move belongs to the will: but command denotes motion together with a kind of ordering, wherefore it is an act of the reason, as stated above (I-II, 17, 1).

[II-II.q.47.a.8.ad.3] Ad tertium dicendum, quod movere absolute pertinet ad voluntatem; sed præcipere importat motionem cum quadam ordinatione; et ideo est actus rationis, ut supra dictum est.

Article 9

[II-II.q.47.a.9.arg.1] It would seem that solicitude does not belong to prudence. For solicitude implies disquiet, wherefore Isidore says (Etym. x) that "a solicitous man is a restless man." Now motion belongs chiefly to the appetitive power: wherefore solicitude does also. But prudence is not in the appetitive power, but in the reason, as stated above (Article 1). Therefore solicitude does not belong to prudence.

[II-II.q.47.a.9.arg.1] Ad nonum sic proceditur. 1. Videtur quod sollicitudo non pertineat ad prudentiam. Sollicitudo enim inquietudinem quamdam importat; dicit enim Isidorus in lib. X Etym., § 244, col. 393, t. 3, quod « sollicitus dicitur qui est inquietus. » Sed motio maxime pertinet ad vim appetitivam. Ergo et sollicitudo. Sed prudentia non est in vi appetitiva, sed in ratione, ut supra habitum est. Ergo sollicitudo non pertinet ad prudentiam.

[II-II.q.47.a.9.arg.2] Further, the certainty of truth seems opposed to solicitude, wherefore it is related (1 Samuel 9:20) that Samuel said to Saul: "As for the asses which were lost three days ago, be not solicitous, because they are found." Now the certainty of truth belongs to prudence, since it is an intellectual virtue. Therefore solicitude is in opposition to prudence rather than belonging to it.

[II-II.q.47.a.9.arg.2] 2. Præterea, sollicitudini videtur opponi certitudo veritatis; unde dicitur I Reg., ix, 20, quod Samuel dixit ad Saul: De asinis, quas nudiustertius perdidisti, ne sollicilium potest considerari dupliciter, in communi et in particulari: in communi ut est temperate vi-vendum, juste agendum, fortiter patiendum; in particulari et in certo casu, ut quantum, quomodo, loco et tempore sit agendum ad attingendum particularem finem virtutis moralis quod est medium rationis, et sic prudentia versatur circa media et finem. Dictat enim non solum media quibus attingatur hic finis, sed etiam dictat et jubet ut per illa in eum tendatur. tus sis, quia inventæ sunt. Sed certitudo veritatis pertinet ad prudentiam cum sit virtus intellectualis. Ergo sollicitudo opponitur prudentiae magis quam ad eam pertineat.

[II-II.q.47.a.9.arg.3] Further, the Philosopher says (Ethic. iv, 3) the "magnanimous man is slow and leisurely." Now slowness is contrary to solicitude. Since then prudence is not opposed to magnanimity, for "good is not opposed to good," as stated in the Predicaments (viii) it would seem that solicitude does not belong to prudence.

[II-II.q.47.a.9.arg.3] 3. Præterea, Philosophus dicit in IV Ethic., cap. III, vers. fin., quod « ad magnanimum pertinet pigrum esse et otiosum. » Pigritiae autem opponitur sollicitudo. Cum ergo prudentia non opponatur magnanimitati, quia « bonum non est bono contra-rium, » ut dicitur in Prædicamentis, cap. « De oppositis, » videtur quod sollicitudo non pertineat ad prudentiam.

[II-II.q.47.a.9.sc] It is written (1 Peter 4:7): "Be prudent . . . and watch in prayers." But watchfulness is the same as solicitude. Therefore solicitude belongs to prudence.

[II-II.q.47.a.9.sc] Sed contra est quod dicitur I Petri, IV, 7: Estote prudentes, et vigilate in orationibus. Sed vigilantia est idem sollicitudini. Ergo sollicitudo pertinet ad prudentiam.

[II-II.q.47.a.9.co] According to Isidore (Etym. x), a man is said to be solicitous through being shrewd [solers] and alert [citus], in so far as a man through a certain shrewdness of mind is on the alert to do whatever has to be done. Now this belongs to prudence, whose chief act is a command about what has been already counselled and judged in matters of action. Hence the Philosopher says (Ethic. vi, 9) that "one should be quick in carrying out the counsel taken, but slow in taking counsel." Hence it is that solicitude belongs properly to prudence, and for this reason Augustine says (De Morib. Eccl. xxiv) that "prudence keeps most careful watch and ward, lest by degrees we be deceived unawares by evil counsel."

[II-II.q.47.a.9.co] Respondeo dicendum, quod, sicut dicit Isidorus in lib. X Etym., ut supra, « sollicitus dicitur, quasi solers citus, » inquantum scilicet aliquis ex quadam solertia animi velox est ad prosequendum ea quæ sunt agenda. Hoc autem pertinet ad prudentiam, cujus præcipuus actus est circa agenda præcipere de præconsiliatis et judicatis. Unde Philosophus dicit in VI Ethic., cap. IX, circa princ., quod « oportet operari quidem velociter consiliata, consiliare autem tarde. » Et inde est quod sollicitudo proprie ad prudentiam pertinet; et propter hoc Augustinus dicit, lib. De moribus Eccl., cap. XXIV, § 45, col. 1330, t. 1, quod « prudentiae sunt excubiæ, atque diligentissima vigilantia, ne subrepente paulatim mala suasione fallamur. »

[II-II.q.47.a.9.ad.1] Movement belongs to the appetitive power as to the principle of movement, in accordance however, with the direction and command of reason, wherein solicitude consists.

[II-II.q.47.a.9.ad.1] Ad primum ergo dicendum, quod motus quidem pertinet ad vim appetitivam sicut ad principium movens; tamen secundum præceptum et directionem rationis, in quo consistit ratio sollicitudinis.

[II-II.q.47.a.9.ad.2] According to the Philosopher (Ethic. i, 3), "equal certainty should not be sought in all things, but in each matter according to its proper mode." And since the matter of prudence is the contingent singulars about which are human actions, the certainty of prudence cannot be so great as to be devoid of all solicitude.

[II-II.q.47.a.9.ad.2] Ad secundum dicendum, quod secundum Philosophum, in I Ethic., cap. III, circa princ., et cap. VII, circa fin., « certitudo non est similiter quærenda in omnibus, sed in unaquaque materia secundum proprium modum. » Quia vero materia prudentiae sunt singularia contingentia, circa quæ sunt operationes humanæ, non potest certitudo prudentiae tanta esse, quod omnino sollicitudo tollatur.

[II-II.q.47.a.9.ad.3] The magnanimous man is said to be "slow and leisurely" not because he is solicitous about nothing, but because he is not over-solicitous about many things, and is trustful in matters where he ought to have trust, and is not over-solicitous about them: for over-much fear and distrust are the cause of over-solicitude, since fear makes us take counsel, as stated above (I-II, 44, 2) when we were treating of the passion of fear.

[II-II.q.47.a.9.ad.3] Ad tertium dicendum, quod magnanimus dicitur esse piger et otiosus, non quia de nullo sit sollicitus, sed quia non est superflue sollicitus de multis, sed confidit in his de quibus confidendum est, et circa illa non superflue sollicitatur; superfluitas enim timoris et diffidentiæ facit superfluitatem sollicitudinis, quia timor facit consiliari nos, ut supra dictum est, cum de passione timoris ageretur.

Article 10

[II-II.q.47.a.10.arg.1] It would seem that prudence does not extend to the governing of many, but only to the government of oneself. For the Philosopher says (Ethic. v, 1) that virtue directed to the common good is justice. But prudence differs from justice. Therefore prudence is not directed to the common good.

[II-II.q.47.a.10.arg.1] Ad decimum sic proceditur. 4. Videtur quod prudentia non se extendat ad regimen multitudinis, sed solum ad regimen sui-ipsius. Dicit enim Philosophus, in V Ethic., c. I, ad fin., quod « virtus relata ad bonum commune est justitia. » Sed prudentia differt a justitia. Ergo prudentia non refertur ad bonum commune.

[II-II.q.47.a.10.arg.2] Further, he seems to be prudent, who seeks and does good for himself. Now those who seek the common good often neglect their own. Therefore they are not prudent.

[II-II.q.47.a.10.arg.2] 2. Præterea, ille videtur esse prudens qui sibiipsi bonum quærit et operatur. Sed frequenter illi qui quærunt bona communia negligunt sua. Ergo non sunt prudentes.

[II-II.q.47.a.10.arg.3] Further, prudence is specifically distinct from temperance and fortitude. But temperance and fortitude seem to be related only to a man's own good. Therefore the same applies to prudence.

[II-II.q.47.a.10.arg.3] 3. Præterea, prudentia dividitur contra temperantiam et fortitudinem. Sed temperantia et fortitudo videntur dici solum per comparisonem ad bonum proprium. Ergo etiam prudentia.

[II-II.q.47.a.10.sc] Our Lord said (Matthew 24:45): "Who, thinkest thou, is a faithful and prudent [Douay: 'wise'] servant whom his lord hath appointed over his family?"

[II-II.q.47.a.10.sc] Sed contra est-quod Dominus dicit Matth., XXIV, 45: Quis putas est fidelis servus et prudens quem constituit dominus super familiam suam?

[II-II.q.47.a.10.co] According to the Philosopher (Ethic. vi, 8) some have held that prudence does not extend to the common good, but only to the good of the individual, and this because they thought that man is not bound to seek other than his own good. But this opinion is opposed to charity, which "seeketh not her own" (1 Corinthians 13:5): wherefore the Apostle says of himself (1 Corinthians 10:33): "Not seeking that which is profitable to myself, but to many, that they may be saved." Moreover it is contrary to right reason, which judges the common good to be better than the good of the individual.

Accordingly, since it belongs to prudence rightly to counsel, judge, and command concerning the means of obtaining a due end, it is evident that prudence regards not only the private good of the individual, but also the common good of the multitude.

[II-II.q.47.a.10.co] Respondeo dicendum, quod, sicut Philosophus dicit, in VI Ethic., cap. VII, quidam posuerunt quod prudentia non se extendit ad bonum commune, sed solum ad bonum proprium; et hoc ideo quia existimabant quod non oportet hominem quærere nisi bonum proprium. Sed hæc existimatio repugnat charitati, quæ non quærit quæ sua sunt, ut dicitur I ad Cor., XIII, 5. Unde et Apostolus de seipso dicit I ad Cor., X, 33: Non quærens quod mihi utile sit*, sed quod multis, ut salvi fiant. Repugnat etiam rationi rectæ, quæ hoc judicat quod bonum commune sit melius quam bonum unius. Quia ergo ad prudentiam pertinet recte consiliari, judicare et præcipere de his per quæ pervenitur ad debitum finem, manifestum est quod prudentia non solum se habet ad bonum privatum unius hominis, sed etiam ad bonum commune multitudinis.

[II-II.q.47.a.10.ad.1] The Philosopher is speaking there of moral virtue. Now just as every moral virtue that is directed to the common good is called "legal" justice, so the prudence that is directed to the common good is called "political" prudence, for the latter stands in the same relation to legal justice, as prudence simply so called to moral virtue.

[II-II.q.47.a.10.ad.1] Ad primum ergo dicendum, quod Philosophus ibi loquitur de virtute morali. Sicut autem omnis virtus moralis relata ad bonum commune dicitur legalis justitia, ita prudentia relata ad bonum commune vocatur prudentia politica; ut sic se habeat politica ad justitiam legalem, sicut se habet prudentia simpliciter dicta ad virtutem moralem.

[II-II.q.47.a.10.ad.2] He that seeks the good of the many, seeks in consequence his own good, for two reasons. First, because the individual good is impossible without the common good of the family, state, or kingdom. Hence Valerius Maximus says [Fact. et Dict. Memor. iv, 6 of the ancient Romans that "they would rather be poor in a rich empire than rich in a poor empire." Secondly, because, since man is a part of the home and state, he must needs consider what is good for him by being prudent about the good of the many. For the good disposition of parts depends on their relation to the whole; thus Augustine says (Confess. iii, 8) that "any part which does not harmonize with its whole, is offensive."

[II-II.q.47.a.10.ad.2] Ad secundum dicendum, quod ille qui quærit bonum commune multitudinis, ex consequenti etiam quærit bonum suum, propter duo: primo quidem quia bonum proprium non potest esse sine bono communi vel familiæ, vel civitatis, aut regni. Unde et Valerius Maximus, lib. IV, cap. iv, § 9, dicit de antiquis Romanis quod « male-bant esse pauperes in divite imperio, quam divites in paupere imperio. » Secundo, quia cum homo sit pars domus vel civitatis, oportet quod consideret quid sit sibi bonum ex hoc quod est prudens circa bonum multitudinis. Bona enim dispositio partium accipitur secundum habitudinem ad totum; quia, ut Augustinus dicit in lib. III Conf., c. viii, col. 689, t. 4, « turpis omnis pars est suo universo non congruens. »

[II-II.q.47.a.10.ad.3] Even temperance and fortitude can be directed to the common good, hence there are precepts of law concerning them as stated in Ethic. v, 1: more so, however, prudence and justice, since these belong to the rational faculty which directly regards the universal, just as the sensitive part regards singulars.

[II-II.q.47.a.10.ad.3] Ad tertium dicendum, quod etiam temperantia et fortitudo possunt referri ad bonum commune; unde de actibus earum dantur præcepta legis, ut dicitur in V Ethic., cap. i, a med. Magis tamen prudentia et justitia, quæ pertinent ad partem rationalem, ad quam directe pertinent communia, sicut ad partem sensitivam pertinent singularia.

Article 11

[II-II.q.47.a.11.arg.1] It seems that prudence about one's own good is the same specifically as that which extends to the common good. For the Philosopher says (Ethic. vi, 8) that "political prudence, and prudence are the same habit, yet their essence is not the same."

[II-II.q.47.a.11.arg.1] Ad undecimum sic proceditur. 1. Videtur quod prudentia quæ est respectu boni proprii, sit eadem specie cum ea quæ se extendit ad bonum commune. Dicit enim Philosophus in VI Ethic., cap. viii, in princ., quod « politica, et prudentia idem habitus est; esse autem non idem ipsis. »

[II-II.q.47.a.11.arg.2] Further, the Philosopher says (Polit. iii, 2) that "virtue is the same in a good man and in a good ruler." Now political prudence is chiefly in the ruler, in whom it is architectonic, as it were. Since then prudence is a virtue of a good man, it seems that prudence and political prudence are the same habit.

[II-II.q.47.a.11.arg.2] 2. Præterea, Philosophus dicit in III Polit., cap. iii, quod « eadem est virtus viri boni, et boni principis. » Sed politica maxime est in principe, in quo est sicut architectorica. Cum ergo prudentia sit virtus boni viri, videtur quod sit idem habitus prudentia et politica.

[II-II.q.47.a.11.arg.3] Further, a habit is not diversified in species or essence by things which are subordinate to one another. But the particular good, which belongs to prudence simply so called, is subordinate to the common good, which belongs to political prudence. Therefore prudence and political prudence differ neither specifically nor essentially.

[II-II.q.47.a.11.arg.3] 3. Præterea, ea quorum unum ordinatur ad aliud, non diversificant speciem aut substantiam habitus. Sed bonum proprium, quod pertinet ad prudentiam simpliciter dictam, ordinatur ad bonum commune, quod pertinet ad politicam. Ergo politica et prudentia neque differunt specie, neque secundum habitus substantiam.

[II-II.q.47.a.11.sc] "Political prudence," which is directed to the common good of the state, "domestic economy" which is of such things as relate to the common good of the household or family, and "monastic economy" which is concerned with things affecting the good of one person, are all distinct sciences. Therefore in like manner there are different kinds of prudence, corresponding to the above differences of matter.

[II-II.q.47.a.11.sc] Sed contra est quod diversæ scientiæ sunt « politica, » quæ ordinatur ad bonum commune civitatis, et « œconomica, » quæ de his est quæ pertinent ad bonum commune domus vel familiæ; et « monastica, » quæ est de his quæ pertinent ad bonum unius personæ. Ergo pari ratione et prudentiae sunt species diversæ, secundum hanc diversitatem materiæ.

[II-II.q.47.a.11.co] As stated above (5; 54, 2, ad 1), the species of habits differ according to the difference of object considered in its formal aspect. Now the formal aspect of all things directed to the end, is taken from the end itself, as shown above (I-II, Prolog.; I-II, 102, 1), wherefore the species of habits differ by their relation to different ends. Again the individual good, the good of the family, and the good of the city and kingdom are different ends. Wherefore there must needs be different species of prudence corresponding to these different ends, so that one is "prudence" simply so called, which is directed to one's own good; another, "domestic prudence" which is directed to the common good of the home; and a third, "political prudence," which is directed to the common good of the state or kingdom.

[II-II.q.47.a.11.co] Respondeo dicendum, quod, sicut supra dictum est, species habituum diversificantur secundum diversitatem objecti, quæ attenditur penes rationem formalem ipsius. Ratio autem formalis omnium quæ sunt ad finem attenditur ex parte finis, sicut ex supra dictis patet; et ideo necesse est quod ex relatione ad diversos fines diversificentur species habitus. Diversi autem fines sunt bonum proprium unius, et bonum familiæ, et bonum civitatis et regni. Unde necesse est quod prudentiae different specie secundum differentiam horum finium: ut scilicet una sit « prudentia » simpliciter dicta, quæ ordinatur ad bonum proprium; alia autem « œconomica » quæ ordinatur ad bonum commune domus, vel familiæ; et tertia « politica, » quæ ordinatur ad bonum commune civitatis, vel regni.

[II-II.q.47.a.11.ad.1] The Philosopher means, not that political prudence is substantially the same habit as any kind of prudence, but that it is the same as the prudence which is directed to the common good. This is called "prudence" in respect of the common notion of prudence, i.e. as being right reason applied to action, while it is called "political," as being directed to the common good.

[II-II.q.47.a.11.ad.1] Ad primum ergo dicendum, quod Philosophus non intendit dicere quod politica sit idem secundum substantiam habitus cuilibet prudentiae, sed prudentiae quæ ordinatur ad bonum commune; quæ quidem « prudentia » dicitur secundum communem ratio- Sic cod.; in Parm: « nam sic se habet. » Sic cod.; in Parm: « architectonica. » nem prudentiae, prout scilicet est quædam « ratio recta agibilium: » dicitur autem « politica » secundum ordinem ad bonum commune.

[II-II.q.47.a.11.ad.2] As the Philosopher declares (Polit. iii, 2), "it belongs to a good man to be able to rule well and to obey well," wherefore the virtue of a good man includes also that of a good ruler. Yet the virtue of the ruler and of the subject differs specifically, even as the virtue of a man and of a woman, as stated by the same authority (Polit. iii, 2).

[II-II.q.47.a.11.ad.2] Ad secundum dicendum, quod sicut Philosophus ibid. dicit, « ad bonum virum pertinet posse bene principari, et bene subjici; » et ideo in virtute boni viri includitur etiam virtus boni principis. Sed virtus principis et subditi differt specie, sicut etiam virtus viri et mulieris, ut ibidem dicitur.

[II-II.q.47.a.11.ad.3] Even different ends, one of which is subordinate to the other, diversify the species of a habit, thus for instance, habits directed to riding, soldiering, and civic life, differ specifically although their ends are subordinate to one another. On like manner, though the good of the individual is subordinate to the good of the many, that does not prevent this difference from making the habits differ specifically; but it follows that the habit which is directed to the last end is above the other habits and commands them.

[II-II.q.47.a.11.ad.3] Ad tertium dicendum, quod etiam diversi fines quorum unus ordinatur ad alium, diversificant speciem habitus; sicut equestris, et militaris, et civilis differunt specie, licet finis unius ordinetur ad finem alterius; et similiter licet bonum unius ordinetur ad bonum multitudinis, tamen hoc non impedit quin talis diversitas faciat habitus differre specie; sed ex hoc sequitur quod habitus qui ordinatur ad finem ultimum, sit principi alior et imperet aliis habitibus.

Article 12

[II-II.q.47.a.12.arg.1] It would seem that prudence is not in subjects but only in their rulers. For the Philosopher says (Polit. iii, 2) that "prudence alone is the virtue proper to a ruler, while other virtues are common to subjects and rulers, and the prudence of the subject is not a virtue but a true opinion."

[II-II.q.47.a.12.arg.1] Ad duodecimum sic proceditur. 1. Videtur quod prudentia non sit in subditis, sed solum in principibus. Dicit enim Philosophus in III Polit., cap. III, quod « prudentia sola est propria virtus principis, aliæ autem virtutes sunt communes subditorum et princip pum; subditi autem non est virtus prudentia, sed opinio vera. » 2. Præterea, in I Polit., cap. ult., a med., dicitur quod « servus omnino non habet quid consiliativum. » Sed prudentia facit bene consiliativos, ut dicitur in VI Ethic., cap. v. Ergo prudentia non competit servis seu subditis. 3. Præterea, prudentia est præceptiva, ut supra dictum est. Sed præcipere non pertinet ad servos vel subditos, sed solum ad principes. Ergo prudentia non est in subditis, sed solum in principibus.

[II-II.q.47.a.12.arg.2] Further, it is stated in Polit. i, 5 that "a slave is not competent to take counsel." But prudence makes a man take good counsel (Ethic. vi, 5). Therefore prudence is not befitting slaves or subjects.

[II-II.q.47.a.12.arg.3] Further, prudence exercises command, as stated above (Article 8). But command is not in the competency of slaves or subjects but only of rulers. Therefore prudence is not in subjects but only in rulers.

[II-II.q.47.a.12.sc] The Philosopher says (Ethic. vi, 8) that there are two kinds of political prudence, one of which is "legislative" and belongs to rulers, while the other "retains the common name political," and is about "individual actions." Now it belongs also to subjects to perform these individual actions. Therefore prudence is not only in rulers but also in subjects.

[II-II.q.47.a.12.sc] Sed contra est quod Philosophus dicit in VI Ethic., cap. VIII, circa princ., quod prudentiae politicæ sunt duæ species: una quæ est legum positiva, quæ pertinet ad principales; alia quæ retinet commune nomen politicæ, quæ est circa singularia. Hujusmodi autem singularia peragere, pertinet etiam ad subditos. Ergo prudentia non est solum principum, sed etiam subditorum.

[II-II.q.47.a.12.co] Prudence is in the reason. Now ruling and governing belong properly to the reason; and therefore it is proper to a man to reason and be prudent in so far as he has a share in ruling and governing. But it is evident that the subject as subject, and the slave as slave, are not competent to rule and govern, but rather to be ruled and governed. Therefore prudence is not the virtue of a slave as slave, nor of a subject as subject.

Since, however, every man, for as much as he is rational, has a share in ruling according to the judgment of reason, he is proportionately competent to have prudence. Wherefore it is manifest that prudence is in the ruler "after the manner of a mastercraft" (Ethic. vi, 8), but in the subjects, "after the manner of a handicraft."

[II-II.q.47.a.12.co] Respondeo dicendum, quod prudentia in ratione est. Regere autem et gubernare proprie rationis est; et ideo unusquisque inquantum participat de regimine et gubernatione, intantum convenit ei habere rationem et prudentiam. Manifestum est autem quod subditi, inquantum est subditus, et servi, inquantum est servus, non est regere et gubernare, sed magis regi et gubernari; et ideo prudentia non est virtus servi, inquantum est servus, nec subditi, inquantum est subditus. Sed quia quilibet homo, inquantum est rationalis, participat aliquid de regimine secundum arbitrium rationis, intantum convenit ei prudentiam habere. Unde manifestum est quod « prudentia quidem in principe est ad modum artis architectonicæ, » ut dicitur in VI Ethic., cap. VIII, circa princ.; « in subditis autem ad modum artis manu operantis. »

[II-II.q.47.a.12.ad.1] The saying of the Philosopher is to be understood strictly, namely, that prudence is not the virtue of a subject as such.

[II-II.q.47.a.12.ad.1] Ad primum ergo dicendum, quod verbum Philosophi est intelligendum, per se loquendo: quia scilicet prudentia non est virtus subditi, inquantum hujusmodi.

[II-II.q.47.a.12.ad.2] A slave is not capable of taking counsel, in so far as he is a slave (for thus he is the instrument of his master), but he does take counsel in so far as he is a rational animal.

[II-II.q.47.a.12.ad.2] Ad secundum dicendum, quod servus non habet consiliativum, inquantum est servus, sic enim est instrumentum domini; est tamen consiliativus, inquantum est animal rationale.

[II-II.q.47.a.12.ad.3] By prudence a man commands not only others, but also himself, in so far as the reason is said to command the lower powers.

[II-II.q.47.a.12.ad.3] Ad tertium dicendum, quod per prudentia homo non solum præcipit aliis, sed etiam sibiipsi, prout scilicet ratio dicitur præcipere inferioribus viribus.

Article 13

[II-II.q.47.a.13.arg.1] It would seem that there can be prudence in sinners. For our Lord said (Luke 16:8): "The children of this world are more prudent [Douay: 'wiser'] in their generation than the children of light." Now the children of this world are sinners. Therefore there be prudence in sinners.

[II-II.q.47.a.13.arg.2] Further, faith is a more excellent virtue than prudence. But there can be faith in sinners. Therefore there can be prudence also.

[II-II.q.47.a.13.arg.2] 2. Præterea, fides est nobilior virtus quam prudentia. Sed fides potest esse in peccatoribus. Ergo et prudentia.

[II-II.q.47.a.13.arg.3] Further, according to Ethic. vi, 7, "we say that to be of good counsel is the work of prudent man especially." Now many sinners can take good counsel. Therefore sinners can have prudence.

[II-II.q.47.a.13.arg.3] 3. Præterea, « prudentis hoc opus maxime dicimus, bene consiliari, » ut dicitur in VI Ethic., cap. v, circa princ., et cap. vii, a med. Sed multi peccatores sunt boni consilii. Ergo multi peccatores habent prudentiam.

[II-II.q.47.a.13.sc] The Philosopher declares (Ethic. vi, 12) that "it is impossible for a man be prudent unless he be good." Now no inner is a good man. Therefore no sinner is prudent.

[II-II.q.47.a.13.sc] Sed contra est quod Philosophus dicit in VI Ethic., cap. xii, in fine: « Impossibile est prudentem esse non existentem bonum. » Sed nullus peccator est bonus. Ergo nullus peccator est prudens.

[II-II.q.47.a.13.co] Prudence is threefold. There is a false prudence, which takes its name from its likeness to true prudence. For since a prudent man is one who disposes well of the things that have to be done for a good end, whoever disposes well of such things as are fitting for an evil end, has false prudence, in far as that which he takes for an end, is good, not in truth but in appearance. Thus man is called "a good robber," and in this way may speak of "a prudent robber," by way of similarity, because he devises fitting ways of committing robbery. This is the prudence of which the Apostle says (Romans 8:6): "The prudence [Douay: 'wisdom'] of the flesh is death," because, to wit, it places its ultimate end in the pleasures of the flesh.

The second prudence is indeed true prudence, because it devises fitting ways of obtaining a good end; and yet it is imperfect, from a twofold source. First, because the good which it takes for an end, is not the common end of all human life, but of some particular affair; thus when a man devises fitting ways of conducting business or of sailing a ship, he is called a prudent businessman, or a prudent sailor; secondly, because he fails in the chief act of prudence, as when a man takes counsel aright, and forms a good judgment, even about things concerning life as a whole, but fails to make an effective command.

The third prudence is both true and perfect, for it takes counsel, judges and commands aright in respect of the good end of man's whole life: and this alone is prudence simply so-called, and cannot be in sinners, whereas the first prudence is in sinners alone, while imperfect prudence is common to good and wicked men, especially that which is imperfect through being directed to a particular end, since that which is imperfect on account of a failing in the chief act, is only in the wicked.

[II-II.q.47.a.13.co] Respondeo dicendum, quod prudentia dicitur tripliciter: est enim quædam prudentia falsa, vel per similitudinem dicta. Cum enim prudens sit qui bene disponit ea quæ sunt agenda propter aliquem bonum finem, ille qui propter malum finem aliqua disponit congruentia illi fini, habet falsam prudentiam, inquantum illud quod accipit pro fine, non est vere bonum, sed secundum similitudinem; sicut dicitur aliquis « bonus latro; » hoc enim modo potest secundum similitudinem dici « prudens latro, » qui convenientes vias adinvenit ad latrocinandum. Et hujusmodi est prudentia de qua Apostolus dicit ad Rom., viii, 6: Prudentia carnis mors est, quæ scilicet finem ultimum constituit in delectatione carnis. Secunda autem prudentia est quidem vera, quia adinvenit vias accommodatas ad finem vere bonum, sed est imperfecta, duplici ratione: uno modo quia illud bonum quod accipit pro fine, non est communis finis totius humanæ vitæ, sed alicujus specialis negotii: puta cum aliquis adinvenit vias accommodatas ad negotiandum vel ad navigandum, dicitur prudens negotiator vel nauta; alio modo, quia deficit in principali actu prudentiae, puta cum aliquis recte consiliatur, et bene judicat etiam de his quæ pertinent ad totam vitam, sed non efficaciter præcipit. Tertia autem prudentia est et vera, et perfecta, quæ ad bonum finem totius vitæ recte consiliatur, judicat et præcipit; et hæc sola dicitur prudentia simpliciter; quæ in peccatoribus esse non potest; prima autem prudentia est in solis peccatoribus; prudentia autem imperfecta est communis bonis et malis, maxime illa quæ est imperfecta propter finem particularem: nam illa quæ est imperfecta propter defectum principalis actus, etiam non est nisi in malis.

[II-II.q.47.a.13.ad.1] This saying of our Lord is to be understood of the first prudence, wherefore it is not said that they are prudent absolutely, but that they are prudent in "their generation."

[II-II.q.47.a.13.ad.1] Ad primum ergo dicendum, quod illud verbum Domini intelligitur de prima prudentia; unde non dicitur simpliciter, quod sint prudentes, sed « in generatione sua. »

[II-II.q.47.a.13.ad.2] The nature of faith consists not in conformity with the appetite for certain right actions, but in knowledge alone. On the other hand prudence implies a relation to a right appetite. First because its principles are the ends in matters of action; and of such ends one forms a right estimate through the habits of moral virtue, which rectify the appetite: wherefore without the moral virtues there is no prudence, as shown above (I-II, 58, 5); secondly because prudence commands right actions, which does not happen unless the appetite be right. Wherefore though faith on account of its object is more excellent than prudence, yet prudence, by its very nature, is more opposed to sin, which arises from a disorder of the appetite.

[II-II.q.47.a.13.ad.2] Ad secundum dicendum, quod fides in sui ratione non importat aliquam conformitatem ad appetitum rectorum operum, sed ratio fidei consistit in sola cognitione. Sed prudentia importat ordinem ad appetitum rectum; tum quia principia prudentiae sunt fines operabilium, de quibus aliquis habet rectam existimationem per habitus virtutum moralium, quæ faciunt appetitum rectum; unde prudentia non potest esse sine virtutibus moralibus, ut supra ostensum est; tum etiam quia prudentia est præceptiva rectorum operum; quod non contingit, nisi existente appetitu recto. Unde licet fides sit nobilior quam prudentia, propter objectum, tamen prudentia secundum sui rationem magis repugnat peccato, quod procedit ex perversitate appetitus.

[II-II.q.47.a.13.ad.3] Sinners can take good counsel for an evil end, or for some particular good, but they do not perfectly take good counsel for the end of their whole life, since they do not carry that counsel into effect. Hence they lack prudence which is directed to the good only; and yet in them, according to the Philosopher (Ethic. vi, 12) there is "cleverness," [deinotike] i.e. natural diligence which may be directed to both good and evil; or "cunning," [panourgia] which is directed only to evil, and which we have stated above, to be "false prudence" or "prudence of the flesh."

[II-II.q.47.a.13.ad.3] Ad tertium dicendum, quod peccatores possunt quidem esse bene consiliativi ad aliquem finem malum, vel ad aliquod particulare bonum; ad finem autem bonum totius vitæ non sunt bene consiliativi perfecte, quia consilium ad effectum non perducunt. Unde non est in eis prudentia, quæ se habet solum ad bonum; sed sicut Philosophus dicit, in VI Ethic., cap. xii, circa fin., est in talibus « dinotica, » id est, naturalis industria, quæ se habet ad bonum et malum; vel astutia, quæ se habet solum ad malum, quam supra diximus « falsam prudentia, » vel « prudentia carnis. »

Article 14

[II-II.q.47.a.14.arg.1] It would seem that prudence is not in all who have grace. Prudence requires diligence, that one may foresee aright what has to be done. But many who have grace have not this diligence. Therefore not all who have grace have prudence.

[II-II.q.47.a.14.arg.2] Further, a prudent man is one who takes good counsel, as stated above (8, Objection 2; 13, Objection 3). Yet many have grace who do not take good counsel, and need to be guided by the counsel of others. Therefore not all who have grace, have prudence

[II-II.q.47.a.14.arg.2] 2. Præterea, prudens dicitur qui est bene consiliativus, ut dictum est. Sed multi habent gratiam qui non sunt bene consiliativi, sed necesse habent regi consilio alieno. Ergo non omnes habentes gratiam habent prudentiam.

[II-II.q.47.a.14.arg.3] Further, the Philosopher says (Topic. iii, 2) that "young people are not obviously prudent." Yet many young people have grace. Therefore prudence is not to be found in all who have grace.

[II-II.q.47.a.14.arg.3] 3. Præterea, Philosophus dicit in III Topic., cap. 11, quod « juvenes constat non esse prudentes. » Sed multi juvenes habent gratiam. Ergo prudentia non invenitur in omnibus gratiam habentibus.

[II-II.q.47.a.14.sc] No man has grace unless he be virtuous. Now no man can be virtuous without prudence, for Gregory says (Moral. ii, 46) that "the other virtues cannot be virtues at all unless they effect prudently what they desire to accomplish." Therefore all who have grace have prudence.

[II-II.q.47.a.14.sc] Sed contra est quod nullus habet gratiam, nisi sit virtuosus. Sed nullus potest esse virtuosus, nisi habeat prudentiam; dicit enim Gregorius in II Moral., cap. xlvvi, col. 588, t. 4, quod « cæteræ virtutes, nisi ea quæ appetunt, prudenter agant, virtutes esse nequaquam possunt. » Ergo omnes habentes gratiam habent prudentiam.

[II-II.q.47.a.14.co] The virtues must needs be connected together, so that whoever has one has all, as stated above (I-II, 65, 1). Now whoever has grace has charity, so that he must needs have all the other virtues, and hence, since prudence is a virtue, as shown above (Article 4), he must, of necessity, have prudence also.

[II-II.q.47.a.14.co] Respondeo dicendum, quod necesse est virtutes esse connexas, ita ut qui unam habet, omnes habeat, sicut supra ostensum est. Quicumque autem habet gratiam, habet charitatem; unde necesse est quod habeat omnes alias virtutes; et ita, cum prudentia sit virtus, ut ostensum est, necesse est quod habeat prudentiam.

[II-II.q.47.a.14.ad.1] Diligence is twofold: one is merely sufficient with regard to things necessary for salvation; and such diligence is given to all who have grace, whom "His unction teacheth of all things" (1 John 2:27). There is also another diligence which is more than sufficient, whereby a man is able to make provision both for himself and for others, not only in matters necessary for salvation, but also in all things relating to human life; and such diligence as this is not in all who have grace.

[II-II.q.47.a.14.ad.1] Ad primum ergo dicendum, quod duplex est industria: una quidem quæ est sufficiens ad ea quæ sunt de necessitate salutis, et talis industria datur omnibus habentibus gratiam, quos unctio docet de omnibus, ut dicitur I Joan., 11. Est autem alia industria plenior, per quam aliquis sibi et aliis potest providere, non solum de his quæ sunt necessaria ad salutem, sed etiam de quibus-cumque pertinentibus ad humanam vitam, et talis industria non est in omnibus habentibus gratiam.

[II-II.q.47.a.14.ad.2] Those who require to be guided by the counsel of others, are able, if they have grace, to take counsel for themselves in this point at least, that they require the counsel of others and can discern good from evil counsel.

[II-II.q.47.a.14.ad.2] Ad secundum dicendum, quod illi qui in-III. digent regi consilio alieno, saltem in hoc sibi ipsis consulere sciunt, si gratiam habent, ut aliorum requirant consilia, et discernant consilia bona a malis.

[II-II.q.47.a.14.ad.3] Acquired prudence is caused by the exercise of acts, wherefore "its acquisition demands experience and time" (Ethic. ii, 1), hence it cannot be in the young, neither in habit nor in act. On the other hand gratuitous prudence is caused by divine infusion. Wherefore, in children who have been baptized but have not come to the use of reason, there is prudence as to habit but not as to act, even as in idiots; whereas in those who have come to the use of reason, it is also as to act, with regard to things necessary for salvation. This by practice merits increase, until it becomes perfect, even as the other virtues. Hence the Apostle says (Hebrews 5:14) that "strong meat is for the perfect, for them who by custom have their senses exercised to the discerning of good and evil."

[II-II.q.47.a.14.ad.3] Ad tertium dicendum, quod prudentia acquisita causatur ex exercitio actuum; unde indiget ad sui generationem experimento et tempore, ut dicitur in II Ethic., in princ., et lib. VI, cap. viii, a med., unde non potest esse in juvenibus nec secundum habitum, nec secundum actum. Sed prudentia gratuita causatur ex infusione divina; unde in pueris baptizatis nondum habentibus usum rationis est prudentia secundum habitum, sed non secundum actum, sicut et in amentibus; in his autem qui jam habent usum rationis, est etiam secundum actum, quantum ad ea quæ sunt de necessitate salutis; sed per exercitium meretur augmentum quousque perficiatur, sicut et cæteræ virtutes. Unde et Apostolus dicit ad Hebr., v, 14, quod perfectorum est solidus cibus, eorum qui pro consuetudine exercitatos habent sensus ad discretionem boni ac mali.

Article 15

[II-II.q.47.a.15.arg.1] It would seem that prudence is in us by nature. The Philosopher says that things connected with prudence "seem to be natural," namely "synesis, gnome" [synesis and gnome, Cf. I-II, 57, 6 and the like, but not those which are connected with speculative wisdom. Now things belonging to the same genus have the same kind of origin. Therefore prudence also is in us from nature.

[II-II.q.47.a.15.arg.2] Further, the changes of age are according to nature. Now prudence results from age, according to Job 12:12: "In the ancient is wisdom, and in length of days prudence." Therefore prudence is natural.

[II-II.q.47.a.15.arg.2] 2. Præterea, ætatum variatio est secundum naturam. Sed prudentia consequitur ætates, secundum illud Job, xii, 12: In antiquis est sapientia, et in multo tempore prudentia. Ergo prudentia est naturalis.

[II-II.q.47.a.15.arg.3] Further, prudence is more consistent with human nature than with that of dumb animals. Now there are instances of a certain natural prudence in dumb animals, according to the Philosopher (De Hist. Anim. viii, 1). Therefore prudence is natural.

[II-II.q.47.a.15.arg.3] 3. Præterea, prudentia magis convenit naturæ humanæ quam naturæ brutorum animalium. Sed bruta animalia habent quasdam naturales prudentias, ut patet per Philosophum, in VIII De histor. animal., cap. i, et lib. IX, cap. v et vi. Ergo prudentia est naturalis.

[II-II.q.47.a.15.sc] The Philosopher says (Ethic. ii, 1) that "intellectual virtue is both originated and fostered by teaching; it therefore demands experience and time." Now prudence is an intellectual virtue, as stated above (Article 4). Therefore prudence is in us, not by nature, but by teaching and experience.

[II-II.q.47.a.15.sc] Sed contra est quod Philosophus dicit in II Ethic., cap. 1, quod « virtus intellectualis ut plurimum ex doctrina habet et generationem et augmentum; ideo experimento indiget, et tempore. » Sed prudentia est virtus intellectualis, ut supra habitum est. Ergo prudentia non inest nobis a natura, sed ex doctrina et experimento.

[II-II.q.47.a.15.co] As shown above (Article 3), prudence includes knowledge both of universals, and of the singular matters of action to which prudence applies the universal principles. Accordingly, as regards the knowledge of universals, the same is to be said of prudence as of speculative science, because the primary universal principles of either are known naturally, as shown above (Article 6): except that the common principles of prudence are more connatural to man; for as the Philosopher remarks (Ethic. x, 7) "the life which is according to the speculative reason is better than that which is according to man": whereas the secondary universal principles, whether of the speculative or of the practical reason, are not inherited from nature, but are acquired by discovery through experience, or through teaching.

On the other hand, as regards the knowledge of particulars which are the matter of action, we must make a further distinction, because this matter of action is either an end or the means to an end. Now the right ends of human life are fixed; wherefore there can be a natural inclination in respect of these ends; thus it has been stated above (I-II, 51, 1; I-II, 63, 1) that some, from a natural inclination, have certain virtues whereby they are inclined to right ends; and consequently they also have naturally a right judgment about such like ends.

But the means to the end, in human concerns, far from being fixed, are of manifold variety according to the variety of persons and affairs. Wherefore since the inclination of nature is ever to something fixed, the knowledge of those means cannot be in man naturally, although, by reason of his natural disposition, one man has a greater aptitude than another in discerning them, just as it happens with regard to the conclusions of speculative sciences. Since then prudence is not about the ends, but about the means, as stated above (6; I-II, 57, 5), it follows that prudence is not from nature.

[II-II.q.47.a.15.co] Respondeo dicendum, quod sicut ex præmissis patet, prudentia includit cognitionem et universalium, et singularium operabilium, ad quæ prudens universalia principia applicat. Quantum ergo ad universalem cognitionem, eadem ratio est de prudentia et scientia speculativa: quia utriusque prima principia universalia sunt naturaliter nota, ut ex supra dictis patet, nisi quod principia communia prudentiae sunt magis connaturalia homini. Ut enim Philosophus dicit in X Ethic., cap. vii et viii, « vita quæ est secundum speculationem, est melior quam quæ est secundum hominem. » Sed alia principia universalia posteriora, sive sint rationes speculativæ, sive practicæ, non habentur per naturam, sed per inventionem secundum viam experimenti vel per disciplinam. Quantum autem ad particularem cognitionem eorum circa quæ operatio consistit, est iterum distinguendum: quia operatio consistit circa aliquid vel sicut circa finem, vel sicut circa ea quæ sunt ad finem. Fines autem recti humanæ vitæ sunt determinati; et ideo potest esse naturalis inclinatio respectu horum finium; sicut supra dictum est, quod quidam habent ex naturali dispositione quasdam virtutes, quibus inclinantur ad rectos fines; et per consequens etiam habent naturaliter rectum judicium de hujusmodi finibus. Sed ea quæ sunt ad finem in rebus humanis non sunt determinata, sed multipliciter diversificantur secundum diversitatem personarum et negotiorum. Unde quia inclinatio naturæ semper est ad aliquid determinatum, talis cognitio non potest homini inesse naturaliter; licet ex naturali dispositione unus sit aptior ad hujusmodi discernenda quam alius, sicut etiam accidit circa conclusiones speculativarum scientiarum. Quia ergo prudentia non est circa fines, sed circa ea quæ sunt ad finem, ut supra habitum est, ideo prudentia non est naturalis.

[II-II.q.47.a.15.ad.1] The Philosopher is speaking there of things relating to prudence, in so far as they are directed to ends. Wherefore he had said before (Ethic. vi, 5,11) that "they are the principles of the ou heneka" [Literally, 'for the sake of which' (are the means)], namely, the end; and so he does not mention euboulia among them, because it takes counsel about the means.

[II-II.q.47.a.15.ad.1] Ad primum ergo dicendum, quod Philosophus ibi loquitur de pertinentibus ad prudentiam, secundum quod ordinatur ad fines. Unde supra præmiserat, ibid., quod « principia sunt ejus quod est cujus gratia, » id est, finis; et propter hoc non facit inter ea mentionem de eubulia, quæ est consilia-tiva eorum quæ sunt ad finem.

[II-II.q.47.a.15.ad.2] Prudence is rather in the old, not only because their natural disposition calms the movement of the sensitive passions, but also because of their long experience.

[II-II.q.47.a.15.ad.2] Ad secundum dicendum, quod prudentia magis est in senibus, non solum propter naturalem dispositionem quietatis motibus passionum sensibilium, sed etiam propter experientiam longi temporis.

[II-II.q.47.a.15.ad.3] Even in dumb animals there are fixed ways of obtaining an end, wherefore we observe that all the animals of a same species act in like manner. But this is impossible in man, on account of his reason, which takes cognizance of universals, and consequently extends to an infinity of singulars.

[II-II.q.47.a.15.ad.3] Ad tertium dicendum, quod etiam in brutis animalibus sunt determinatæ viæ perveniendi ad finem; unde videmus quod omnia animalia ejusdem speciei similiter operantur. Sed hoc non potest esse in homine propter rationem ejus, quæ cum sit cognoscitiva universalium, ad infinita singularia se extendit.

Article 16

[II-II.q.47.a.16.arg.1] It would seem that prudence can be lost through forgetfulness. For since science is about necessary things, it is more certain than prudence which is about contingent matters of action. But science is lost by forgetfulness. Much more therefore is prudence.

[II-II.q.47.a.16.arg.2] Further, as the Philosopher says (Ethic. ii, 3) "the same things, but by a contrary process, engender and corrupt virtue." Now the engendering of prudence requires experience which is made up "of many memories," as he states at the beginning of his Metaphysics (i, 1). Therefore since forgetfulness is contrary to memory, it seems that prudence can be lost through forgetfulness.

[II-II.q.47.a.16.arg.2] 2. Præterea, sicut Philosophus dicit in II Ethic., cap. 1 et Ⅱ, « virtus ex eisdem generatur et corrumpitur, contrario modo factis. » Sed ad generationem prudentiae necessarium est experimentum, quod fit ex multis memoriis, ut dicitur in princ. Metaphysic. Ergo cum oblivio memoriae opponatur, videtur quod prudentiae per oblivionem possit amitti.

[II-II.q.47.a.16.arg.3] Further, there is no prudence without knowledge of universals.

But knowledge of universals can be lost through forgetfulness. Therefore prudence can also.

[II-II.q.47.a.16.arg.3] 3. Præterea, prudentia non est sine cognitione universalium. Sed universalium cognitio potest per oblivionem amitti. Ergo et prudentia.

[II-II.q.47.a.16.sc] The Philosopher says (Ethic. vi, 5) that "forgetfulness is possible to art but not to prudence."

[II-II.q.47.a.16.sc] Sed contra est quod Philosophus dicit in VI Ethic., cap. v, in fin., quod « oblivio est artis, et non prudentiae. »

[II-II.q.47.a.16.co] Forgetfulness regards knowledge only, wherefore one can forget art and science, so as to lose them altogether, because they belong to the reason. But prudence consists not in knowledge alone, but also in an act of the appetite, because as stated above (Article 8), its principal act is one of command, whereby a man applies the knowledge he has, to the purpose of appetition and operation. Hence prudence is not taken away directly by forgetfulness, but rather is corrupted by the passions. For the Philosopher says (Ethic. vi, 5) that "pleasure and sorrow pervert the estimate of prudence": wherefore it is written (Daniel 13:56): "Beauty hath deceived thee, and lust hath subverted thy heart," and (Exodus 23:8): "Neither shalt thou take bribes which blind even the prudent [Douay: 'wise']."

Nevertheless forgetfulness may hinder prudence, in so far as the latter's command depends on knowledge which may be forgotten.

[II-II.q.47.a.16.co] Respondeo dicendum, quod oblivio respi-tem motum. » cit cognitionem tantum; et ideo per oblivionem potest aliquis artem totaliter perdere, et similiter scientiam quæ in ratione consistunt. Sed prudentia non consistit in sola cognitione, sed etiam in appetitu: quia, ut dictum est, principalis ejus actus est praecipere, quod est applicare cognitionem habitam ad appetendum et operandum. Et ideo prudentia non directe tollitur per oblivionem, sed magis corrumpitur per passiones; dicit enim Philosophus in VI Ethic., cap. v, a med., quod « delectabile et triste pervertit aestimationem prudentiæ. » Unde Dan., xiii, 56, dicitur: Species decepit te, et concupiscentia subvertit cor tuum; et Exod., xxiii, 8, dicitur: Ne accipias munera, quæ etiam excæcant prudentes. Oblivio tamen potest impedire prudentiam, inquantum procedit ad praecipiendum ex aliqua cognitione, quæ per oblivionem tolli potest.

[II-II.q.47.a.16.ad.1] Science is in the reason only: hence the comparison fails, as stated above [Cf. I-II, 53, 1].

[II-II.q.47.a.16.ad.1] Ad primum ergo dicendum, quod scientia est in sola ratione; unde de ea est alia ratio, ut supra dictum est.

[II-II.q.47.a.16.ad.2] The experience required by prudence results not from memory alone, but also from the practice of commanding aright.

[II-II.q.47.a.16.ad.2] Ad secundum dicendum, quod experimentum prudentiæ non acquiritur ex sola memoria, sed ex exercitio recte praecipiendi.

[II-II.q.47.a.16.ad.3] Prudence consists chiefly, not in the knowledge of universals, but in applying them to action, as stated above (Article 3). Wherefore forgetting the knowledge of universals does not destroy the principal part of prudence, but hinders it somewhat, as stated above.

The Summa Theologica of St. Thomas AquinasSecond and Revised Edition, 1920Literally translated by Fathers of the English Dominican ProvinceOnline Edition Copyright © 2009 by Kevin Knight Nihil Obstat. F. Innocentius Apap, O.P., S.T.M., Censor. Theol.Imprimatur. Edus. Canonicus Surmont, Vicarius Generalis. Westmonasterii.APPROBATIO ORDINISNihil Obstat. F. Raphael Moss, O.P., S.T.L. and F. Leo Moore, O.P., S.T.L.Imprimatur. F. Beda Jarrett, O.P., S.T.L., A.M., Prior Provincialis AngliæMARIÆ IMMACULATÆ - SEDI SAPIENTIÆ

[II-II.q.47.a.16.ad.3] Ad tertium dicendum, quod prudentia principaliter consistit non in cognitione universalium, sed in applicatione ad opera, ut dictum est. Et ideo oblivio universalis cognitionis non corrumpit id quod est principale in prudentia, sed aliquod impedimentum ei affert, ut dictum est.

← Q46. Folly which is opposed to wisdom

Secunda Secundae

Q49. Each quasi-integral part of prudence →

JSON: /api/sources/opera-omnia-aquinas/summa-theologiae/secunda-secundae/q047.json